History 1007 - Test 1 (Asiya Alam)

Who was Bartolomeu Dias?

He was a Portuguese voyager who sailed around the the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean

Who was Vasco da Gama?

A Portuguese explorer who sailed the Indian Ocean and returned with spices

What was Vasco da Gama's influence on Portuguese trade?

When he returned from his voyage, Portugal became active in the spice trade

What was Ferdinand Magellan?

Portuguese mariner who led a Spanish expedition to the East Indies across the Pacific Ocean

What were the economic motives for voyages funded by European powers in the 15th century?

- New routes to Asia

- Increased demands for Asian goods (spices)

- Search for land and resources to cultivate crops

- Elimination of the middlemen in Asian trade; wanted to trade directly

What were the religious motives for voyages funded by European powers in the 15th century?

- Spreading Christianity

- Opportunities to spread faith

What were the technological innovations that expedited thea ge of exploration?

- Strong ships

- Navigational instruments

- Knowledge of winds and currents

What did strong strips provide for the age of exploration?

They were fitted with new sails that allowed them to navigate strong winds; it made Atlantic trade feasible

What were some nautical inventions that contributed to the age of exploration?

Magnetic compasses

Astrolabes

What is the VOC?

The Dutch East India Company

What did the VOC do?

established a monopoly on the spice trade

What was the English East India Company?

an economic and military organization

What were the goals of the English East India Company?

- Provide private merchants with money to trade

- Buy, sell, and build trading posts in Asia

- Make war

- Increase competition in trading

What were some effects of the Columbian exchange?

- Contact between biological species

- Connection between lands

- Alteration of the world's human geography and natural environment

What was the general process of Spanish conquest in the Caribbean after the Columbian exchange?

1) Spanish conquerors created a model for colonies

2) Spanish crown invested in larger expeditions to new territory

3) They enslaved native to work in gold mines

4) Established an encomienda system

5) Encomenderos emerged and enjoyed the fruits of the system

6) Instructed Indians in Christianity

What is the encomienda system?

It consisted of a grant given by the Spanish crown to a conquistador, a soldier, an official, or others of a specific number of "Indios" (Native Americans and, later, Filipinos) living in a particular area

Explain the rise of trading companies and the European conquest of Asia

- Establishment of joint stock companies

- Establishment of VOC and English East India Company

- Influence on foreign policy

- Spanish conquest of the Phillippines increased the hub of Spanish commercial activity

- VOC established monopoly on the spice trade

Who were the huguenots?

French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin

Who was St. Ignatius Loyola?

the founder of the society of Jesus (Jesuits)

Who was Matteo Ricci?

A Jesuit missionary who introduced European technology to China

Who was the first European to enter the Forbidden City (imperial palace) of Beijing?

Matteo Ricci

Discuss the intervention of Martin Luther, his main ideas, and his critique of the Catholic Church

- Denounced Church's sale of indulgences

- Thought they were signs of greed, moral rot, and hypocrisy

- Wrote the Ninety-Five Theses which recounted how the indulgences were problematic and corrupt

- Excommunicated in 1520 by Pope Leo X

What are indulgences?

when one paid to lessen their time in purgatory, and go straight to heaven

Explain the growth and spread of Protestant Reformation in Europe following critique of Martin Luther

- Disagreement with the Catholic Church

- Belief that faith alone saves

- Scriptures hold the key to Christian truth

- Followers flocked to hear Luther speak

- Other German cities passed laws requiring services to follow Protestant doctrines

Explain the main ideas of John Calvin and its impact on the Reformation

- Calvin moved to Geneva, Switzerland

- Emphasized God more than Luther

- "Predestination" - God has predetermined which individuals can be saved before their birth

- Geneva became the center of the Calvinist doctrine

- Spread to France and the rest of Europe

Discuss the process of Catholic Reformation in Europe in the sixteenth century

- Main goal was to correct abuses in the Church and persuade Protestants to return to the Roman Church

- The Council of Trent

What was the Council of Trent?

High Church officials who met between 1545 and 1563 to address doctrine and reform

- Defined elements of Roman Catholic theology

- Established schools and seminaries for priests

Explain the spread of religious wars in Europe during the sixteenth century.

- France: fighting between Catholics and Hugeunots

- Spain: Spanish monarchy wanted to dethrone the protests Queen Elizabeth of England

- Dutch provinces revolted against France

- Thirty Years war

- Peace of Westphalia

What is the Thirty Years War?

a European conflict over religion and territory and for power among ruling families

What is the Peace of Westphalia?

The treaties that ended the Thirty Years War

What is the St.Bartholomew's Day massacre?

The massacre of French Huguenots by Roman Catholic nobles and other citizens

What is the Bill of Rights of 1689?

The bill that destroyed the divine right of kings; laws were to be made by Parliament only

What is the Edict of Nantes?

an edict issued by Henry IV that allowed Huguenots the right to worship

What is the idea of divine right of kings?

The idea that God places kings on their thrones and thus their decisions cannot be questioned

Who was Oliver Cromwell?

a Puritan leader who finally won the English Civil War for the antiloyalists

What is the Puritan Protectorate?

The military dictatorship of Cromwell

What were the measures taken to restore order in Europe?

- Growth in size and professionalism of armies

- Higher taxes

- Larger and more efficient bureaucracies

- Territorial expansion and trade within Europe and overseas

What is absolutism?

a political system common to early modern Europe (1600s) in which monarchs claimed exclusive power to make and enforce laws, without checks by other institutions

What is constitutionalism?

power of the government is limited by law and balanced between the authority and power of the government, and the rights and liberties of the subject or citizen

Explain the emergence of French absolutism after the religious wars

- Recovery: Henry IV issues the Edict of Nantes

- Under Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu regulated economic activity and recruited men for the army

- Cardinal Richelieu aimed to weaken the Habsburgs control on territories surrounding France

- Louix XIV "The Sun King"

- Divine right of kings

- Increased size of army

- Standardized training program for soldiers

Discuss the religious and political issues in England that led to the English Civil War.

- Religious tensions due to the Puritans (wanted to purify the Anglican Church of all Catholic influences

- James I and Charles I imposed absolutist form of government

- Believed in divine right of kings

- Conflict with Parliament

Explain the Glorious Revolution in England

- Charles II succeeded by James II; fled because he was Catholic

- His Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, Prince William III of Orange, were crowned

- Bill of Rights in 1689: destruction of divine right of kings; laws to be made in Parliament only

What is mercantilism?

belief in the benefits of profitable trading (commercialism)

What are the Navigation Acts of 1651?

it required goods imported into England and Scotland to be carried on British ships owned by British crews

Who is Adam Smith?

he was the father of capitalism; attacked monopoly on markets; wrote the Wealth of Nations

Who is Emilie du Chatelet?

She was a female physicist who wrote about physics, mathematics, and mechanics

What did Emilie du Chatelet translate>

She translated Newton's "Principia" into French

Explain capitalism

- Private parties own land and other resources needed for production

- Worker hiring and economic decisions are the prerogative of businessmen

- Center of capitalism: goods are sold, and the market is determined by supply and demand

What led to the emergence of capitalism?

- European economic expansion due to mercantilism

- Religious and political Changes

Explain the transformation in thinking about the universe that led to the scientific revolution

- Re conception of the Universe

- Ptolemaic Universe (Geocentric model)

- Copernican Universe

- "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"

What is the Ptolemaic Universe?

otionless earth surrounded by nine hollow, concentric spheres

What is the Copernican Universe?

Nicolaus Copernicus Heliocentric model

What is the theory proposed in "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"?

the sun, rather than the earth, stood at the center of the universe, with earth and other planets revolving around it

Discuss the broad political, economic and scientific changes in thought that characterized Enlightenment in Europe by 1700

- Enlightenment

- Figures located throughout Europe

- Cosmopolitan Networks

What is the Enlightenment?

intellectual and cultural movement in the late 17th and 18th century in Europe that emphasized critical thinking to debate issues and challenge old knowledge in politics, religion, and natural sciences

What was the goal of Cosmopolitan Networks?

thinkers crossed borders; exchange of visits, letters, and printed materials

What is a conquistador?

a Spanish conqueror

What is the encomienda system?

conquistadors were rewarded with land and labor for their "victory" in conquests

What are audiencias and what did they do?

Court of Appeals

Reviewed performance of viceroys; heard appeals against the viceroys' policies and decisions.

What is the Treaty of Tordesillas?

A treaty that separated the new world between Portugal and Spain

Portugal got control of the east, and Spain got control of the west

Discuss the conquest of Mexico by Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century.

- Hernan Cortes arrived in Tenochtitlan and defeated the Aztec Empire

- Explorers became conquistadors

- Enhanced weaponry; formed alliances with indigenous peoples

- Depopulation and weakening of whole cities and regions of Aztec society

Discuss the conquest of Peru by Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century.

- Francisco Pizarro led a Spanish expedition to Peru

- Captured Cuzco, the Inca capital

- Exploited divisions in Inca ruling family

- Killed ruling elites, looted gold and silver from temples and buildings

- Smallpox caused depopulation

Explain the administration of the Spanish empire in the Americas

- Formal rule of the Spanish Crown

- Two centers: New Spain (Mexico) and New Castile (Peru)

- Audiencias

- More territory added after 1600s

Explain the global economy of silver generated by mining.

- For the first conquistadors, success meant discovery of gold and silver.

- Spanish entered the business of mining, opening the Potosi mines

- Tons of silver sent to Spain

- Colonial mines epitomized the Atlantic world's economy

- Labor was first enslaved, then drafter

- New World silver changed Europe's relationship with trading partners

Discuss the Portuguese colonization of Americas in the sixteenth century

- Treaty of Tordesillas: gave Spain control of wants to the west, and Portugal to the east of the Americas

- Portuguese brought sugarcane production to coastal America

- Indigenous labor was used on plantations (forcibly)

- New form of colonization: plantations

What are "creoles"?

native born descendants of Spanish settlers

What are "mestizos"?

People of mixed Spanish and native descent

What was the hierarchy among mestizos?

Iberian parentage was better than indigenous and African parents

What are peninsulares?

migrants born in the Iberian Peninsula in Europe

What are casta paintings?

paintings that depicted the effects of inter-cultural mixing

What is an engenho?

a sugar mill; a complex containing all things involved in sugar production

Who is Bartolome de Las Casas?

priest who condemned the encomienda system by exposing its horrors. It worked, the king eventually ended the practice in 1542

Who was Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala?

A native who learned and wrote in Spanish; sent a 1200 page letter to the Spanish asking for protection of indigenous people against colonists

Explain the formation of mestizo societies in colonial Americas

- The mestizo population was ethnically mixed (Spanish and indigenous parentage)

- Also involved Spanish migrants marrying among themselves

- Recreated a European-style society

- Brazil: Portuguese men with indigenous and African women

- Colonial Brazil was racially and ethnically more mixed than Mexico

What are "mulattoes"?

People of African and Portuguese descent

What are "zambos"?

People of Indigenous and African parentage

Explain the nature of mining and agriculture in the Spanish empire in the early modern world

- Two main mining areas: Northern Mexico (Zacatecas) and Potosi

- Quinto

- Haciendas

- Encomienda system

- Repartimiento in New Spain and Mita in Peru: administration assigned a certain percentage of native population to labor for a set period each in mining

- Workers were recruited for dangerous chores that free laborers would not do

What is a quinto?

fight of silver production reserved for the Spanish government

What is an hacienca

a large estate

Explain the emergence of sugar plantation complex and slavery in Brazil

- Relied on imported enslaved Africans for labor

- Engenhos (sugar mills)

- Relied on heavy labor and specialized skills

- Mill owners were a privileged class with social, political, and economic power

- High rates of disease and mortality for enslaved Africans in Brazil

What did the Mali empire control?

all trans-Saharan trade

What are the characteristics of the Songhay Empire?

- Controlled the trading cities of Timbuktu and Jenne

- Used the wealth of the Mali empire to dominate the Niger valley

What was the Kingdom of Ghana known for?

Trade in gold and salt

Who were the elites in the Kingdom of Gahan

They were literate in Arabic; majority Muslims made up its bureaucracy

Who was King Nzinga Mbemba?

Also known as King Affonso I, he was the king of Kongo

What was Queen Nzinga's main goal?

her main goal was to drive the Portuguese from her land

What was the Kingdom of Ndongo?

A Portuguese established a colony south of Kongo to support slave trade

What is the Kingdom of Kongo currently known as?

Republic of Congo and Angola

Discuss the African economy of trans-Saharan trade and Indian Ocean trade of Swahili city states

- Trade across the Sahara was a major source of economy

- North African inhabitants were called Berbers

- Huge market for African gold

- Slavery was common

- West Africa rulers converted to Islam and became literate in Arabic

Explain the Portuguese colonization of Swahili city states

- Constructed forts to control trade in east Africa

- Administrative stronghold in Mombasa

- Expanded their control around Swahili city states and established a colony

Explain the Portuguese influence and colonization of the kingdoms of West and Central Africa

Kingdom of Ndongo:

- Portuguese established a colony south of Kongo to support slave trade

- Queen Nzinga wanted to drive the Portuguese from her land

- Portuguese established full control after her death

- Angola was the first European colony in sub-Saharan Africa

- Angola gained independence in 1975

What are maroons

communities of enslaved people who ran away and established their own communities

What did Olaudah Equiano do?

campaigned to end slave trade in Britain

What was the Haitian revolution>

It began as a slave revolt in the French sugar colony Saint Domingue and ended in 1804 with independence

Discuss the rise of slavery in the Americas

- Enslaved Africans delivered to Spain and Portugal and worked as miners, porters or domestic servants.

- Portugal: Slaves also worked in the Portuguese island colonies in the Atlantic

- Extended the use of slave labor to South America

- Imported enslaved people from Kongo and Angola to Brazil

- Spain: enslaved people worked as miners and cultivators in New Spain

- England: brought enslaved Africans to North America

Discuss the origins of triangular trade

Voyages of three legs:

- European goods, mostly firearms, were exchanged for slaves in sub-Saharan Africa

- Enslaved Africans were sent to Caribbean and American destinations; Sold at 2-3 times the cost.

- Carried American products back to Europe.

What are some examples of cash crops?

sugar, tobacco, rice, and indigo

Explain the nature of plantation societies that evolved in the Americas.

- Production and export of commercial crops relied on slave labor

- Racial division of labor: Euro-American were supervisors and owners; African slaves did physical labor

- Slaves were treated brutally and severely punished

- Gendered sexual violence

- Regional Differences: Higher numbers in Caribbean and South America.

Who was Confucius?

He was a Chinese teacher and philosopher

What are analects

a compilation of the sayings of Confucius