AP Psychology Unit 4: Learning

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

stimulus

a signal to which an organism responds

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Neutral stimuli

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

Conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant chamber/Skinner box

a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled

reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Discrimination stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

Negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

biofeedback

the use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function

Primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (ex. food)

Conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Immediate reinforcers

occurs immediately after a behavior

Delayed reinforcers

delayed rewards

Reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed-ratio schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-rate schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-interval schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Respondent behaviors

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behaviors

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Cognitive mapping

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

Learned helplessness

the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

External locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

Vicarious reinforcement

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

Vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Prosocial modeling

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Antisocial modeling

detrimental, destructive, unhelpful behavior