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Renaissance
A period of cultural and intellectual flourishing in Europe, characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning and the arts.
Protestant Reformation
A 16th-century religious movement led by figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, resulting in the establishment of Protestantism and the fragmentation of the Catholic Church.
Absolutism
A political system in which a single ruler holds total power, often justified by the divine right of kings.
Enlightenment
An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individual rights as the basis of society and government.
French Revolution
A period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, resulting in the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Industrial Revolution
A period of rapid industrialization and technological advancement in the 18th and 19th centuries, leading to significant changes in manufacturing, transportation, and society.
Nationalism
A sense of identity and loyalty to one's nation, often characterized by the belief in the superiority of one's own culture and the desire for self-determination.
Imperialism
The policy of extending a nation's power and influence through colonization, military conquest, or economic domination of other territories.
World War I
A global conflict from 1914 to 1918, primarily involving European powers, characterized by trench warfare and resulting in significant social, political, and economic upheaval.
Treaty of Versailles
The peace treaty that ended World War I, imposing harsh penalties on Germany and redrawing the map of Europe.
1517
Martin Luther's 95 Theses
1555
Peace of Augsburg: Aimed to settle religious conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire, specifically between Catholic and Protestant factions. It allowed German princes to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as the official religion of their respective states, establishing the principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" (Latin for "whose realm, his religion"). This meant that the religion of the ruler would determine the religion of the state. The Peace of Augsburg effectively ended the religious warfare that had plagued the empire.
1648
Peace of Westphalia: Brought an end to the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. These treaties are widely regarded as marking the end of the European wars of religion and the beginning of the modern state system.
1688
Glorious Revolution in England
1789
French Revolution begins
1815
Congress of Vienna: It was convened by the major European powers following the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte to negotiate the terms of peace and to redraw the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.
1848
Revolutions across Europe: A series of widespread and largely spontaneous uprisings that swept across Europe that were driven by a variety of factors, including socioeconomic grievances, demands for political reform, and nationalist aspirations.
1871
Unification of Germany
1914 - 1918
World War I
1919
Treaty of Versailles
1939 - 1945
World War II
Period 1
1450 - 1648
Period 2
1648 - 1815
Period 3
1815 - 1914
Period 4
1914 - present
Capitalism
An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit through free markets and competition.
Socialism
An economic and political system advocating for collective or government ownership and administration of the means of production, with the goal of achieving social equality.
Communism
A political and economic ideology advocating for the establishment of a classless society where the means of production are owned collectively and goods are distributed according to need.
Liberalism
A political ideology emphasizing individual liberty, equality, and limited government intervention in economic and social affairs.
Conservatism
A political ideology favoring traditional values, institutions, and social hierarchies, and advocating for gradual change rather than radical reform.
Nationalism
A political ideology emphasizing the interests and identity of a nation, often leading to movements for independence, unification, or expansion.
Fascism
A far-right political ideology characterized by authoritarianism, nationalism, and the glorification of the state, often accompanied by dictatorial leadership and suppression of dissent.
Marxism
A socio-political theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels advocating for the overthrow of capitalist society and the establishment of a classless, communist society.
Feminism
A socio-political movement advocating for the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes and challenging gender-based oppression and discrimination.
Adam Smith
Scottish economist and author of "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), considered the father of modern economics and a key figure in the development of capitalist theory.
Karl Marx
German philosopher, economist, and author of "The Communist Manifesto" (1848) and "Das Kapital," a foundational figure in socialist and communist thought.
Vladimir Lenin
Russian revolutionary leader, founder of the Russian Communist Party, and leader of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, which led to the establishment of the Soviet Union.
John Locke
English philosopher and political theorist whose works, including "Two Treatises of Government" (1689), laid the groundwork for liberal principles such as natural rights and limited government.
Edmund Burke
Irish statesman, philosopher, and author of "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790), a seminal work in conservative political thought.
Giuseppe Mazzini
Italian nationalist leader and founder of the organization Young Italy, advocating for the unification and independence of Italy.
Benito Mussolini
Italian dictator and leader of the National Fascist Party, who established the fascist regime in Italy in the early 20th century.
Friedrich Engels
German philosopher, political theorist, and collaborator of Karl Marx, co-authoring "The Communist Manifesto" and providing significant contributions to Marxist theory.
Mary Wollstonecraft
English writer, philosopher, and advocate for women's rights, author of "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), a foundational text in feminist thought.
Leonardo da Vinci
Italian Renaissance polymath, known for his contributions to art, science, engineering, and anatomy, including masterpieces such as the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper."
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Ireland (1558–1603), known for her successful reign marked by political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural flourishing, often referred to as the Elizabethan Age.
Louis XIV
King of France (1643–1715), known for his absolutist rule, lavish court at Versailles, and efforts to centralize power in France, symbolizing the height of French monarchy.
Catherine the Great
Empress of Russia (1762–1796), known for her enlightened rule, expansion of the Russian Empire, and patronage of the arts and education, contributing to Russia's emergence as a European power.
Napoleon Bonaparte
French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution, becoming Emperor of the French (1804–1814/1815) and leading military campaigns across Europe.
Otto von Bismarck
Prussian statesman and Chancellor of the German Empire (1871–1890), known for his diplomacy and statecraft in unifying Germany and establishing it as a major European power.
Winston Churchill
British statesman, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1940–1945, 1951–1955), known for his leadership during World War II and his contributions to Allied victory against Nazi Germany.
Michelangelo
Italian Renaissance sculptor, painter, and architect, known for masterpieces such as the Statue of David, the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and the dome of St. Peter's Basilica.
Martin Luther
German monk, theologian, and key figure in the Protestant Reformation, famous for challenging the Catholic Church's doctrines and practices with his Ninety-five Theses.
Voltaire
French Enlightenment philosopher, writer, and advocate for civil liberties, known for his wit, satire, and defense of freedom of speech and religion.
Mikhail Gorbachev
Soviet statesman and General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1985–1991), known for his policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), which contributed to the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Rene Descartes
French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, considered the father of modern philosophy for his emphasis on rationalism and the dualistic separation of mind and body.
Catherine de' Medici
Queen consort and later Queen Mother of France (1547–1589), known for her political influence during the French Wars of Religion and her patronage of the arts and culture.
Peter the Great (Peter I)
Tsar of Russia (1682–1725), known for his efforts to modernize Russia and westernize its culture, economy, and military, transforming it into a major European power.
The Renaissance
What period in European history saw a revival of interest in classical learning and the arts, characterized by humanism?
Leonardo da Vinci
Who is considered the father of the Renaissance due to his work in art, science, and anatomy?
Florence
What Italian city-state was the epicenter of the Renaissance?
Martin Luther
Who initiated the Protestant Reformation by nailing the 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church in 1517?
Sola Scriptura
What principle emerged from the Reformation, emphasizing the authority of the Bible over the Catholic Church?
Prince Henry the Navigator
What Portuguese prince is often credited with spearheading early exploration efforts around Africa?
Mercantilism
What economic system emerged as a result of European colonization, emphasizing the extraction of resources from colonies?
Louis XIV
What French king famously said, "L'État, c'est moi" ("I am the state"), exemplifying absolutist rule?
Cardinal Richelieu
Who was the chief minister to Louis XIV, often considered the architect of French absolutism?
Peter the Great
What Russian czar is known for centralizing power and modernizing Russia during the 17th century?
René Descartes
Who is considered the father of modern philosophy and authored works such as "Discourse on the Method" and "Meditations on First Philosophy"?
Adam Smith
What Scottish economist wrote "The Wealth of Nations," advocating for free-market capitalism?
Immanuel Kant
What German philosopher championed the idea of a social contract and the concept of natural rights?
The Storming of the Bastille
What event marked the beginning of the French Revolution, occurring on July 14, 1789?
Maximilien Robespierre
Who led the radical phase of the French Revolution and initiated the Reign of Terror?
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
What document, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, proclaimed the rights of man and citizen during the French Revolution?
Napoleon Bonaparte
What military leader rose to power in post-revolutionary France and eventually crowned himself emperor?
The Battle of Waterloo
What battle marked the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815?
The Congress of Vienna
What international conference aimed to restore stability and balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars?
The Spinning Jenny
What invention revolutionized textile production and kickstarted the Industrial Revolution?
Capitalism
What economic system emerged during the Industrial Revolution, characterized by private ownership of the means of production?
Karl Marx
Who wrote "The Communist Manifesto" with Friedrich Engels, advocating for the overthrow of the capitalist system?
Giuseppe Garibaldi
What Italian statesman is credited with the unification of Italy?
Otto von Bismarck
What German statesman orchestrated the unification of Germany?
Nationalism
What concept refers to the belief that a nation should have its own state, separate from others?
The Berlin Conference
What meeting among European powers in 1884-1885 aimed to divide Africa among them peacefully?
India
What British colony was famously referred to as the "jewel in the crown" of the British Empire?
The First Opium War
What war between China and Great Britain resulted in China ceding Hong Kong to Britain?
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary
What event sparked the outbreak of World War I in 1914?
The Allies (Entente Powers) and the Central Powers
What were the two main opposing alliances in World War I?
The Treaty of Versailles
What treaty officially ended World War I?
The Great Depression
What economic crisis hit the world in 1929, leading to widespread unemployment and economic hardship?
Joseph Stalin
Who led the Soviet Union during the interwar period, implementing policies of rapid industrialization and collectivization?
Fascism
What was the name of the political movement in Italy led by Benito Mussolini?
The German invasion of Poland
What event marked the beginning of World War II in Europe?
Appeasement
What was the name of the policy of appeasement pursued by Western powers towards Nazi Germany?
D-Day
What was the code name for the Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944?
The Iron Curtain
What was the dividing line between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War?
The Truman Doctrine
What doctrine outlined the policy of containment against Soviet expansion?
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
What was the name of the military alliance formed by Western European nations and the United States during the Cold War?
The dissolution of the Soviet Union
What event marked the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991?
The European Union (EU)
What economic union was established in Europe in 1993, aiming for closer economic and political integration?
The Yugoslav Wars
What conflict erupted in the Balkans in the 1990s, leading to ethnic cleansing and genocide?
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