Renaissance

• Definition: A period of cultural and intellectual flourishing in Europe, characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning and the arts.

Protestant Reformation

• Definition: A 16th-century religious movement led by figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, resulting in the establishment of Protestantism and the fragmentation of the Catholic Church.

Absolutism

• Definition: A political system in which a single ruler holds total power, often justified by the divine right of kings.

Enlightenment

• Definition: An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individual rights as the basis of society and government.

French Revolution

• Definition: A period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, resulting in the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Industrial Revolution

• Definition: A period of rapid industrialization and technological advancement in the 18th and 19th centuries, leading to significant changes in manufacturing, transportation, and society.

Nationalism

• Definition: A sense of identity and loyalty to one's nation, often characterized by the belief in the superiority of one's own culture and the desire for self-determination.

Imperialism

• Definition: The policy of extending a nation's power and influence through colonization, military conquest, or economic domination of other territories.

World War I

• Definition: A global conflict from 1914 to 1918, primarily involving European powers, characterized by trench warfare and resulting in significant social, political, and economic upheaval.

Treaty of Versailles

• Definition: The peace treaty that ended World War I, imposing harsh penalties on Germany and redrawing the map of Europe.

1517: Martin Luther's 95 Theses

1555: Peace of Augsburg: Aimed to settle religious conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire, specifically between Catholic and Protestant factions. It allowed German princes to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as the official religion of their respective states, establishing the principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" (Latin for "whose realm, his religion"). This meant that the religion of the ruler would determine the religion of the state. The Peace of Augsburg effectively ended the religious warfare that had plagued the empire

1648: Peace of Westphalia: Brought an end to the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. These treaties are widely regarded as marking the end of the European wars of religion and the beginning of the modern state system.

1688: Glorious Revolution in England

1789: French Revolution begins

1815: Congress of Vienna: It was convened by the major European powers following the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte to negotiate the terms of peace and to redraw the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.

1848: Revolutions across Europe: A series of widespread and largely spontaneous uprisings that swept across Europe that were driven by a variety of factors, including socioeconomic grievances, demands for political reform, and nationalist aspirations.

1871: Unification of Germany

1914 - 1918: World War I

1919: Treaty of Versailles

1939 - 1945: World War II

Period 1: 1450 - 1648 (Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration, Unit 2: Age of Reformation)

Period 2: 1648 - 1815 (Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism, Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments, Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the

Late 18th Century)

Period 3: 1815 - 1914 (Unit 6: Industrialization and Its Effects, Unit 7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments)

Period 4: 1914 - present (Unit 8: 20th-Century Global Conflicts, Unit 9: Cold War and Contemporary Europe)

Capitalism

• An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit through free markets and competition.

Socialism

• An economic and political system advocating for collective or government ownership and administration of the means of production, with the goal of achieving social equality.

Communism

• A political and economic ideology advocating for the establishment of a classless society where the means of production are owned collectively and goods are distributed according to need.

Liberalism

• A political ideology emphasizing individual liberty, equality, and limited government intervention in economic and social affairs.

Conservatism

• A political ideology favoring traditional values, institutions, and social hierarchies, and advocating for gradual change rather than radical reform.

Nationalism

• A political ideology emphasizing the interests and identity of a nation, often leading to movements for independence, unification, or expansion.

Fascism

• A far-right political ideology characterized by authoritarianism, nationalism, and the glorification of the state, often accompanied by dictatorial leadership and suppression of dissent.

Marxism

• A socio-political theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels advocating for the overthrow of capitalist society and the establishment of a classless, communist society.

Feminism

• A socio-political movement advocating for the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes and challenging gender-based oppression and discrimination.

Capitalism

• Adam Smith: Scottish economist and author of "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), considered the father of modern economics and a key figure in the development of capitalist theory.

Socialism

• Karl Marx: German philosopher, economist, and author of "The Communist Manifesto" (1848) and "Das Kapital," a foundational figure in socialist and communist thought.

Communism

• Vladimir Lenin: Russian revolutionary leader, founder of the Russian Communist Party, and leader of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, which led to the establishment of the Soviet Union.

Liberalism

• John Locke: English philosopher and political theorist whose works, including "Two Treatises of Government" (1689), laid the groundwork for liberal principles such as natural rights and limited government.

Conservatism

• Edmund Burke: Irish statesman, philosopher, and author of "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790), a seminal work in conservative political thought.

Nationalism

• Giuseppe Mazzini: Italian nationalist leader and founder of the organization Young Italy, advocating for the unification and independence of Italy.

Fascism

• Benito Mussolini: Italian dictator and leader of the National Fascist Party, who established the fascist regime in Italy in the early 20th century.

Marxism

• Friedrich Engels: German philosopher, political theorist, and collaborator of Karl Marx, co-authoring "The Communist Manifesto" and providing significant contributions to Marxist theory.

Feminism

• Mary Wollstonecraft: English writer, philosopher, and advocate for women's rights, author of "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), a foundational text in feminist thought.

Leonardo da Vinci

• Role: Italian Renaissance polymath, known for his contributions to art, science, engineering, and anatomy, including masterpieces such as the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper."

Elizabeth I

• Role: Queen of England and Ireland (1558–1603), known for her successful reign marked by political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural flourishing, often referred to as the Elizabethan Age.

Louis XIV (The Sun King)

• Role: King of France (1643–1715), known for his absolutist rule, lavish court at Versailles, and efforts to centralize power in France, symbolizing the height of French monarchy.

Catherine the Great

• Role: Empress of Russia (1762–1796), known for her enlightened rule, expansion of the Russian Empire, and patronage of the arts and education, contributing to Russia's emergence as a European power.

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Role: French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution, becoming Emperor of the French (1804–1814/1815) and leading military campaigns across Europe.

Otto von Bismarck

• Role: Prussian statesman and Chancellor of the German Empire (1871–1890), known for his diplomacy and statecraft in unifying Germany and establishing it as a major European power.

Winston Churchill

• Role: British statesman, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1940–1945, 1951–1955), known for his leadership during World War II and his contributions to Allied victory against Nazi Germany.

Michelangelo

• Role: Italian Renaissance sculptor, painter, and architect, known for masterpieces such as the Statue of David, the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and the dome of St. Peter's Basilica.

Martin Luther

• Role: German monk, theologian, and key figure in the Protestant Reformation, famous for challenging the Catholic Church's doctrines and practices with his Ninety-five Theses.

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)

• Role: French Enlightenment philosopher, writer, and advocate for civil liberties, known for his wit, satire, and defense of freedom of speech and religion.

Mikhail Gorbachev

• Role: Soviet statesman and General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1985–1991), known for his policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), which contributed to the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Rene Descartes

• Role: French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, considered the father of modern philosophy for his emphasis on rationalism and the dualistic separation of mind and body.

Catherine de' Medici

• Role: Queen consort and later Queen Mother of France (1547–1589), known for her political influence during the French Wars of Religion and her patronage of the arts and culture.

Peter the Great (Peter I)

• Role: Tsar of Russia (1682–1725), known for his efforts to modernize Russia and westernize its culture, economy, and military, transforming it into a major European power.

Humanism

• Emphasized the study of classical history and literature as the foundation for education.

Petrarch

• A fourteenth-century Italian poet who developed an interest in classical text from ancient Rome. He journeyed through Italy in search of lost classical texts, and was able to recover many of the writings of the ancient Roman philosopher Cicero. Petrarch is known as the “Father of Humanism” for his role in reviving scholarly interest in classical studies.

Renaissance Art

• Focused on naturalistic portrayals of human subjects in imitation of the classical art of ancient Greece and Rome.

Erasmus

• A Dutch humanist scholar, was one of the best-known proponents of Christian humanism.

Christian Humanism

• Northern Renaissance writers who were producing works that were more focused on Christian principles and social reform.

New Monarchs

• Monarchs began to centralize power by collecting taxes directly and excising more influence on the religious life of their subjects.

Colombian Exchange

• A permanent exchange of people, goods, food, animals, ideas, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.

Baroque art

• placed great emphasis on grandeur, sharp contrasts, and detail in order to inspire an emotional response in the viewer of awe and religious devotion.

Renaissance

• Flashcard: What period in European history saw a revival of interest in classical learning and the arts, characterized by humanism? Answer: The Renaissance.

• Flashcard: Who is considered the father of the Renaissance due to his work in art, science, and anatomy? Answer: Leonardo da Vinci.

• Flashcard: What Italian city-state was the epicenter of the Renaissance? Answer: Florence.

Protestant Reformation

• Flashcard: Who initiated the Protestant Reformation by nailing the 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church in 1517? Answer: Martin Luther.

• Flashcard: What principle emerged from the Reformation, emphasizing the authority of the Bible over the Catholic Church? Answer: Sola Scriptura.

Age of Exploration

• Flashcard: What Portuguese prince is often credited with spearheading early exploration efforts around Africa? Answer: Prince Henry the Navigator.

• Flashcard: What economic system emerged as a result of European colonization, emphasizing the extraction of resources from colonies? Answer: Mercantilism.

Absolutism

• Flashcard: What French king famously said, "L'État, c'est moi" ("I am the state"), exemplifying absolutist rule? Answer: Louis XIV.

• Flashcard: Who was the chief minister to Louis XIII, often considered the architect of French absolutism? Answer: Cardinal Richelieu.

• Flashcard: What Russian czar is known for centralizing power and modernizing Russia during the 17th century? Answer: Peter the Great.

Enlightenment

• Flashcard: Who is considered the father of modern philosophy and authored works such as "Discourse on the Method" and "Meditations on First Philosophy"? Answer: René Descartes.

• Flashcard: What Scottish economist wrote "The Wealth of Nations," advocating for free-market capitalism? Answer: Adam Smith.

• Flashcard: What German philosopher championed the idea of a social contract and the concept of natural rights? Answer: Immanuel Kant.

French Revolution

• Flashcard: What event marked the beginning of the French Revolution, occurring on July 14, 1789? Answer: The Storming of the Bastille.

• Flashcard: Who led the radical phase of the French Revolution and initiated the Reign of Terror? Answer: Maximilien Robespierre.

• Flashcard: What document, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, proclaimed the rights of man and citizen during the French Revolution? Answer: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Napoleon and Congress of Vienna

• Flashcard: What military leader rose to power in post-revolutionary France and eventually crowned himself emperor? Answer: Napoleon Bonaparte.

• Flashcard: What battle marked the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815? Answer: The Battle of Waterloo.

• Flashcard: What international conference aimed to restore stability and balance of power in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars? Answer: The Congress of Vienna.

Industrial Revolution

• Flashcard: What invention revolutionized textile production and kickstarted the Industrial Revolution? Answer: The Spinning Jenny.

• Flashcard: What economic system emerged during the Industrial Revolution, characterized by private ownership of the means of production? Answer: Capitalism.

• Flashcard: Who wrote "The Communist Manifesto" with Friedrich Engels, advocating for the overthrow of the capitalist system? Answer: Karl Marx.

Nationalism and Unification Movements

• Flashcard: What Italian statesman is credited with the unification of Italy? Answer: Giuseppe Garibaldi.

• Flashcard: What German statesman orchestrated the unification of Germany? Answer: Otto von Bismarck.

• Flashcard: What concept refers to the belief that a nation should have its own state, separate from others? Answer: Nationalism.

Imperialism

• Flashcard: What meeting among European powers in 1884-1885 aimed to divide Africa among them peacefully? Answer: The Berlin Conference.

• Flashcard: What British colony was famously referred to as the "jewel in the crown" of the British Empire? Answer: India.

• Flashcard: What war between China and Great Britain resulted in China ceding Hong Kong to Britain? Answer: The First Opium War.

World War I

• Flashcard: What event sparked the outbreak of World War I in 1914? Answer: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary.

• Flashcard: What were the two main opposing alliances in World War I? Answer: The Allies (Entente Powers) and the Central Powers.

• Flashcard: What treaty officially ended World War I? Answer: The Treaty of Versailles.

Interwar Period

• Flashcard: What economic crisis hit the world in 1929, leading to widespread unemployment and economic hardship? Answer: The Great Depression.

• Flashcard: Who led the Soviet Union during the interwar period, implementing policies of rapid industrialization and collectivization? Answer: Joseph Stalin.

• Flashcard: What was the name of the political movement in Italy led by Benito Mussolini? Answer: Fascism.

World War II

• Flashcard: What event marked the beginning of World War II in Europe? Answer: The German invasion of Poland.

• Flashcard: What was the name of the policy of appeasement pursued by Western powers towards Nazi Germany? Answer: Appeasement.

• Flashcard: What was the code name for the Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944? Answer: Operation Overlord (D-Day).

Cold War

• Flashcard: What was the dividing line between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War? Answer: The Iron Curtain.

• Flashcard: What doctrine outlined the policy of containment against Soviet expansion? Answer: The Truman Doctrine.

• Flashcard: What was the name of the military alliance formed by Western European nations and the United States during the Cold War? Answer: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).

Post-Cold War Europe

• Flashcard: What event marked the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991? Answer: The dissolution of the Soviet Union.

• Flashcard: What economic union was established in Europe in 1993, aiming for closer economic and political integration? Answer: The European Union (EU).

• Flashcard: What conflict erupted in the Balkans in the 1990s, leading to ethnic cleansing and genocide? Answer: The Yugoslav Wars.