Media influences on aggression

what 2 ways have people investigated the effect of video games on aggression

• Experimental research; this is usually lab based research carried out in controlled conditions, where the IV has been manipulated 

• Correlational research; which looks at real life variables as opposed to artificial types of aggression

experimental study on computer games

One study was carried out by Bartholow and Sanderson (2002). Students either played a violent computer game (mortal kombat) or a non-violent equivalent (PGA golf) for ten minutes. They then carried out the Taylor competitive reaction time task (TCRTT) which is a standardised laboratory measure of aggression. In the CRTT, participants are led to believe they are playing a computerised reaction time game against another participant in an adjacent room. At the beginning of each round, both participants set the intensity (volume and/or duration) of a noise blast. Then, they have to react to a stimulus as quickly as possible by pressing a button, and the faster player is determined the winner. The loser of a round is punished with a noise blast using the intensity settings made by the winner at the beginning of the round. The intensity settings are used as the measure for aggressive behaviour. Those who played the violent game selected significantly higher noise levels than those who played the golf game (means of 5.97 and 4.60 decibels respectively). 

evaluation of experimental study on computer games summary

• can establish a causal link

• artificial and unrealistic

evaluation of experimental study on computer games - can establish a causal link

One strength of lab research into the effects of video games on violence is that they allow us to establish a causal link as they have been carried out in controlled conditions so that all extraneous variables can also be controlled e.g. the amount of time playing the video game. This means that cause and effect can be inferred between computer games and aggression.  

evaluation of experimental study on computer games - artificial and unrealistic

However, lab experiments are artificial and unrealistic as the measures of aggression like the TCRTT are not true to real life. In real life people do not demonstrate their aggression by subjecting people to white noise. In addition, lab experiments do not involve fear of retaliation unlike in the real world. In most experiments Ps are administering white noise blasts or stealing money from an imaginary participant. Therefore, this may reduce the ecological validity of lab based research. However, it would be unethical to use realistic forms of aggression as a measure of aggression as we cannot allow confederates to be physically harmed for the purpose of an experiment. 

evaluation of experimental study on computer games - risk of demand characteristics

Another criticism of lab experiments is a high risk of demand characteristics, in this case participants might think that they are supposed to be giving blasts to the opponent regardless of whether they actually feel aggression or not. Therefore, the research may lack internal validity.  

correlational study on computer games

DeLisi et al (2013) studied 227 juvenile offenders who had histories of serious aggressive behaviours such as hitting a parent/teacher or gang fighting. They used structured interviews to gather measures of aggression and computer game playing. They found offenders’ aggression was significantly positively correlated with how often they played violent computer games and their enjoyment of them. The researchers argued that the link was so well-established that aggression should be considered a public health issue and that computer game playing should be considered a significant risk factor for it.   

evaluation of correlational study on computer games summary

• no ethical concerns

• can’t infer cause and effect

• may be other variables not accounted for

evaluation of correlational study on computer games - no ethical concerns

The main strength of correlational research is that it allows the investigation of realistic aggression like violent crime without ethical concerns. This is because no variables are manipulated, instead the researcher measures existing aggression and game playing.  

evaluation of correlational study on computer games - can’t infer cause and effect

However, it is not possible to infer cause and effect so there is an issue of bi-directional ambiguity. It must be questioned whether violent video games caused Ps to become violent (as the study concludes) or whether naturally violent people choose to play violent video games. The direction of this relationship cannot be determined.

evaluation of correlational study on computer games - may be other variables not accounted for

Another reason why we cannot infer cause and effect is that there may be other variables that contribute to the link between gaming and aggression. Ferguson et al (2009) argue that the effects of violent media disappeared in their Meta-analysis when other potential influences like family violence and mental health were taken into account. This suggests other risk factors may be the primary cause of aggression and violent behaviour. 

general evaluation for the effect of computer games on aggression

Some researchers argue that aggressive feelings from playing video games are caused by the frustration they cause the participant not the violent content (frustration-aggression hypothesis). One study found in both violent and non-violent video games it was the difficulty or lack of mastery of the game that led to frustration and aggression rather than the storyline or imagery. This suggests the link between video games and aggression has been made too simplistic as even non-violent video games can leave players feeling aggressive if too difficult. This therefore questions the validity of all gaming research.  

desensitisation

Normally when we witness violent actions we experience physiological arousal associated with the sympathetic nervous system, such as increased heart rate, higher blood pressure, greater sweat activity etc. But, when children in particular repeatedly view aggression on TV or play violent games they become used to the effects of the violence. Therefore, an aggressive stimulus will have less physiological impact resulting in a reduction of physiological arousal and less anxiety. 

The desensitisation is psychological as well as physiological. Repeated exposure to violent media promotes a belief that using aggression as a method for resolving conflict is socially acceptable. Negative attitudes towards violence weaken, less empathy is felt for victims and any injuries the victim has sustained are minimised and dismissed

study on desensitisation

Bushman and Anderson (2009) carried out a study to show that desensitisation is psychological. Participants played a violent or nonviolent video game for 20 min. After this, while completing a questionnaire, they heard a loud fight in which one person was injured outside the lab. Participants who played violent games took longer to help the injured victim, rated the fight as less serious, and were less likely to "hear" the fight in comparison to participants who played nonviolent games. These findings suggest that violent media makes people less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others. 

evaluation of desensitisation

A study by Krahe (2011) supports the idea that the desensitisation is physiological. They compared participants who were habitual viewers of violent media to those who weren't. They showed them violent and non-violent film clips and measured their physiological arousal using skin conductance. They found the frequent viewers showed lower levels of arousal to the clips and actually reported higher levels of pleasant arousal. They then found that Ps who scored lower levels of arousal were more likely to show unprovoked aggression in a noise blast task. The study therefore shows that watching violence seems to desensitise people to it and this makes aggression more likely. 

disinhibition

Most people hold the view that violence and aggression are antisocial and harmful. Consequently, there are powerful social and psychological inhibitions/restraints against using aggression to resolve interpersonal conflicts. These inhibitions/restraints are learned by the processes explained in Social learning theory.  

However, after viewing violent media these usual inhibitions/ restraints are loosened. This is because the media often portrays aggressive behaviour as normal, acceptable and justified. The media also often minimises the effects of violence on its victims and often leaves aggression unpunished. For example, in video games violence is often rewarded and the consequences are ignored.  

This creates new social norms in the viewer and therefore they act aggressively because there is a lack of guilt or concern about consequences. 

evaluation of disinhibition

There is supporting evidence for Disinhibition, Goranson (1969) showed people a film of a boxing match with two alternate endings. One ending showed no apparent consequences, whereas in the other the losing boxer died at the end of the match. It was found that Ps who saw the ending with no apparent consequences were more likely to behave aggressively after viewing the fight. Therefore, this supports the theory that disinhibition will occur if there are no consequences of violence.  

cognitive priming

The term ‘priming’ refers to a temporary increase in the accessibility of a thought. Huesmann (1998) argues when people are constantly exposed to violent media it provides them with a script of how violent situations will ‘play out’. This is stored in memory so we become primed or ‘ready’ to be aggressive. He argues this is mostly automatic & can guide our behaviour without us being aware of it. The script is triggered when we encounter an aggressive situation.  

study on cognitive priming

One study investigated the priming of aggressive scripts in the memory by looking at song lyrics. Researchers found that when male participants listened to aggressively negative lyrics about women they behaved more aggressively to a female confederate afterwards. This procedure was replicated with female Ps using ‘men-hating’ song lyrics with similar results. 

evaluation of cognitive priming

Supporting evidence from Bushman (1998) showed undergraduates a 15-minute clip of a violent or non-violent film. Participants then took part in a reaction time task where they pressed a key when a word was flashed on the screen. Half the words were aggressive; half were nonaggressive. Participants who saw the violent film had faster reaction times to aggressive words. Film content did not influence reaction times to nonaggressive words. This suggests that exposure to aggression primes memories related to aggression, thus supporting the role of cognitive priming in aggression. 

general evaluation of the role of desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming summary

• real world application

• individual differences

• deterministic

general evaluation of the role of desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming - real world application

Research into media influences on aggression has real world applications. For example, research into desensitisation has helped the military understand that it can be adaptive for troops to become desensitised to the horrors of war as they can be more effective in combat. In addition, research into media influences on aggression helps researchers to understand why people may not help those in distress due to being desensitised or disinhibited.  

general evaluation of the role of desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming - individual differences

The theories all assume that violent media will affect everyone in the same way, however there may be individual differences in the impact of the media. For example, researchers have shown that younger children are more likely to be influenced than older children as they are drawn into violent action sequences without considering the motives or consequences. In addition, children brought up in households with norms against violence are less likely to be influenced than those whose parents use physical violence as punishment. These factors suggest that the relationship between media violence and aggression is not straightforward and may be affected by many other variables. 

general evaluation of the role of desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming - deterministic

An issue with research into media influences on aggression is that it is deterministic. The theories all suggest that exposure to violent media will cause aggression. This means that freewill is ignored, an individual may be exposed to media violence but choose not to display the behaviour themselves. Therefore, the research could be considered to be socially sensitive as it is implying that if someone acts aggressively it is not their fault. For example, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson are said to have watched a violent film (Child’s Play 3) prior to killing Jamie Bulgar, using these theories it could be argued that their behaviour was determined by watching the film. This has implications for punishment, should individuals be punished if their aggression is determined by exposure to violence as a child?