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Actor Observer Bias:
The tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental Attribution Error.
Example: A student justified his poor performance with external obstacles like family issues. However, his advisor overestimated the importance of internal factors, such as the student’s laziness or lack of knowledge.
Prejudice:
It is an unjustifiable attitude filled with negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and an inclination to discriminatory action.
Stereotypes:
A generalized (sometimes accurate but overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
Ex: All blacks like chicken
Dscrimination:
Unjustifiable negative actions toward a group or its members.
Social Identity:
The “we” aspect of our self concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.
Ex: A person strongly identifying as a Debate Team Member or Mexican.
Ingroup:
“Us”— People with whom we share a common identity.
Outgroup:
“Them”— those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.
Ingroup Bias:
The tendency to favor our own group.
-This is different than mirror image perceptions because it is not a mutual view that is held by conflicting parties.
Scapegoat Theory:
The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. When things go wrong, finding someone to blame is a target for our negative emotions.
Ex: White government officials referred to Covid as the “Chinese” Virus.
Other Race Effect:
People are generally able to recall faces of their own race more accurately than faces of other races. It emerges during infancy, and is also called the cross-race effect.
Role:
A set of expectations/ norms about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
Norms:
A society’s understood rules for accepted behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior in social situations.
Normative Social Influence:
Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. It stems from the need to belong, and is common in collectivist cultures, which prize group harmony.
Informational Social Influence:
Influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality, such as when reading online product and movie reviews.
EX: People follow health practices recommended by health experts, or those followed by the majority because they are uncertain. They assume others are right
Culture:
The behaviors, ideas, and values shared by a group of people and transmitted from generations.
Tight Cultures:
A place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.
Loose Cultures:
A place with flexible and informal norms.
Frustration Aggression Principle:
The principle that frustration— the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal— creates anger, which can generate aggression.
EX: People who are overheated have overheated tempers. Hungry people are more angry.
Social Scripts:
A culturally modeled guide for how to act in certain situations.
EX: Girls who watch actors drink and hookup at parties in movies copy that behavior in real life.
Passionate Love:
An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually in the honeymoon phase of a relationship (Empire Times).
Companionate Love:
The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. Feelings of calmness and trust label companionate love.
Ex: Grandparents (Bc they don’t have a lot of passion anymore).
Self-Disclosure:
The act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others.
Social Exchange Theory:
The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Example: If someone is donating blood, they may weigh the costs of doing it (Anxiety and discomfort) against the beliefs (social approval, good feelings). If the rewards outweigh the costs, they will help out.
Altruism:
The selflessness concern for the welfare of those in dire need.
Example: Noah wants to travel the world and help people in the most direct need. He is demonstrating altruism.
Social Responsibility Norm:
An expectation that people will help those needing their help.
Example: Hope enjoys spending her Saturday afternoons walking around her local park picking up litter. She is doing it so everyone has a clean environment to enjoy (Social Responsibility Norm).
Mirror Image Perceptions:
Mutual views that are often held by conflicting parties. When each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful, and sees the other side as evil and aggressive.
Example: Americans during the Cold War assumed that America represented the side of good and the Soviet Union represented evil.
Reciprocity Norm:
An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. Those for whom we do favors will often return favors.
Superordinate Goals:
Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
Example: In order to move a stalled truck, everyone needed to use their strength and push it together.
GRIT:
Graduated and Reciprocated Intiatives in Tension Reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions with a few conciliatory acts.
Small gestures: Smiling, touches, and a word of apology.
