HTHRHSC 5900 exam 2-3

questionnaire

-set of questions designed w/ purpose of seeking specific info from the respondants
-useful for obtaining mental states, attitudes, and events experienced

questionnaire construction

-researcher specifies info that is being sought
-drafting: phrasing and design
-pilot: try w/ small group 1st to improve clarity and remove problems
-redraft
-administration

interview

-expensive and time consuming
-interviewer bias

self-administered

-cheap
-less susceptible to bias
-low return rates in mail

open ended questions

-no predetermined response

close response

-supplied w/ predetermined list of options

open ended issues

-large amount of effort to encode
-give rise to categorical scales which are at low end of measurement types used for health research
-take long time to respond

forced-choice

-doesn't allow a middle of the road or undecided answer due to acquiescent response mode

acquiescent response mode

-occurs when people give middle responses all the time due to laziness or concealing true opinions

extreme response mode

-never selects on intermediate point

double barreled

-2 questions included in one
-ex: do you like math or science?

ambiguous questions

-avoiding words/terms that mean different things to different people
-ex: old people could be above 30 or 50-60 olds

level of wording

-avoid jargon, at level of target audience

bias and leading questions

-should not lead a respondent to feel committed to respond in certain way
-ex: "how often do you go to church?" w/out having the never option

questionnaire structure

-intro statement
-demographic
-factual
-opinion
-closing statements

interviews

-key tool for clinicians and health researchers as means of collecting info about opinions and experiences of patients

types of interviews

-scheduled standardized interview
-non-schedule standardized interview
-non-standardized interview

schedule standardized interview

-wording and ordering of questions exactly the same for each participant

non-schedule standardized interview

-certain types of info are desired from all but the phrasing and order redefined

non-standardized interview

-rigid form of conversation like a play w/ a fixed script
-systematic order
-minimal no deviation

unstructured interview

-not asking direct questions but prompting to reflect on current interests/concerns

interview process

-select type of participants
-recruitment of research participants
-interview
-use of response schedules/answers checklist
-free-form (unstructured) notes
-follow up

selecting type of participants

-quantitative\=random sampling
-qualitative\=key informants

free-form (unstructured) notes

-highly refined
-biased
-reduced data

video recording

-low in cost, high quality
-provide wealth of info by observing non-verbal cues
-construct audio transcript
-unwilling to respond due to risk of it being shown to others

audio taping

-used to prepare transcripts
-considered less intrusive than video

disadvantages of video recording

-intrusive
-requires substantial post-interview analysis
-less disclosure

response sheet

-requires great trust in judgement and recording abilities of the interviewer

focus groups

-form groups interviewing that can enhance data collection by providing info that wasn't available through individual interviews
-gain commercially important info about consumer preferences
-6-10 people face-to-face engage in discussions

advantages of focus groups

-max data collection
-encourages those who are reluctant or feel that they have little to contribute to participate
-illiterate people can express verbally express

disadvantages of focus groups

-group dynamics/cultures that may silence some individuals -difficult to research sensitive topics
-difficulty transcribing
-increase cost

quantitative analysis

-count \# of words spoken to measure relative contribution to the conversation
-count \# of questions asked by the cinician

descriptive (ethnography)

-written from perspective of participant (1st person)
-provide detailed description of a set of circumstances and encourage readers to make own interpretations
-consider/theorize the social/cultural contexts

theoretical

-attempt to develop theories/concepts to verify them
-constant comparative method and theoretical sampling method

constant comparative method

-researcher codes and analyzes data to develop concepts

theoretical sampling method

-cases are selected to refine the theory

coding

-used to organize data collection in interview
-study their material, develop close familiarity, form major categories

observation

-direct perception and recording of the phenomena under study

self-observations of patients

-provide data for understanding how patient's pain experiences change over time
-may observe pain-related behaviors

advantage of lab environment

-impose control over extraneous factors that may influence observations

disadvantage of lab environment

-phenomenon being observed may change when in artificial setting

fundamental issue

-extent to which the observer becomes involved

complete participant

-assumes role of participant in setting under investigation and doesn't disclose intent to others

participant as observer

-participates fully but discloses his/her identity and purpose to others

observer as participants

-makes no pretense of participation but interacts w/ others

complete observer

-does not interact w// others does not disclose identity or purpose

4 principles of field research

1) investigator establishes proximity w/ participant in social/physical sense
2) report should be truthful
3) data should include pure description of action, people, activities
4) data should contain direct quotes from participants

classic studies

1) acts and activities
2) meanings
3) participation
4) relationships
5) settings

acts and activites

-actions constituting brief/major involvements of an individual

meanings

-verbal productions directly defining/explaining the participants activities
-holding breath, standing still, sniffing/coughing

participation

-their involvement in a particular socials etting

relationships

-descriptions of the nature of the interrelationships among ppl

settings

-descriptions of entire setting for investigation

observer roles

-attempts to be as objective and detached as possible

definition of relevant variables

-specify precisely what aspect is being studied/observed

observation and structure

-max level of control and structure

measurement

-procedure of attributing qualities or quantities to specific characteristics of objects, persons, or events

operationalization

-process of converting theoretical ideas to a precise statement of how variables are to be measured

operational definition of construct/associated variables

-statement of how the researcher chooses to measure the variables being investigated (unambiguous and reproducible)

objective

-involve the measurement of physical quantities and qualities using devices (produce scores)

subjectives

-involve ratings/judgements by humans of quantities and qualities (observations)

measurement error

-observed value\=true value +/- error

reliability

-property of reproducibility and consistency of the results of a measurement procedure

test-retest reliability

-administer the same measurement procedure twice to the same participants
-results correlated by correlation coefficient from -1 to +1, +0.8 or above is considered sound

inter-observer (inter-rater) reliability

-extent of agreement determined by having 2 or more clinicians independently assess same patients and compare

internal consistency

-extent to which the results on the different items correlate w/ each other

validity

-concerned w/ accuracy of test procedure

content/face validty

-its difficult to find external measures to correlate w/ the measure to be validated

predictive validity

-concerned w/ the ability of a test to predict values of it or other tests in the future

construct validity

-look at predictive validity test of X and Y

low predictive validity

-scores on X not clearly related to level of scores on Y

high predictive validity

-scores correspond closely, only these results are consistent w/ rating scale X being useful

predictive and content validity

-apply to specific tests and measures used

internal/external validity

-refer to characteristics of total project/program

sensitivity and specificity

-applied to screening tests which determine whether patient has a particular problem/illness

sensitivity

-proportion of ppl who test positively who really have the disease (true positives out of all positives)

specificity

-proportion of individuals who test and do not reaaly have the disease (true negative)

nominal scales

-lowest level
-measurement involves the naming/categorization of possible values of the variable (qualitative)

ordinal scales

-rank ordering value sof a variable (1st, 2nd, 3rd...)
-A\>B or B\>A

interval scales

-no absolute zero pt, an arbitrary zero pt is assigned
-0 degrees Celsius doesn't equal no heat but the freezing pt
-A-B\=B-C

ratio scales

-meaningful or non-arbitrary zero pt
-highest level
-0 degrees Kelvin equals absence of heat molecules stop vibrating

measures of central tendency

-statistics or numbers expressing the most typical or representative scores in a data distribution
-mode, median, mean

measures of variability

-statistics representing the extent to which scores are dispersed numerically
-range, average deviation, variance, standard deviation, semi-interquartile range

mode

-when data is nominal (categories)
-the most frequently occurring score/category in distribution

median

-w/ ordinal, interval, ratio data
-score divides distribution in half
-(n + 1)/2, n\=total \# of cases in sample

n odd for median

-median is middle score

n even for median

-median falls b/t 2 center scores

mean

-sum of all scores divided by \# of scores
-mean\=sigmax/n

range

-difference b/t highest and lowest scores

average deviation

-subtract mean from each score, sum individual deviations and divide by n
-sigmax\=-3+ (-2)+ (-1)+ 0 +1 +2 +3\=0

variance

-sum of the squared deviations about the mean divided by \# of cases
-s^2\=sigma (x-m)^2/N

standard deviation

-square root of variance

semi-interquartile range

-distance b/t scores representing 25th (Q1) and 75th (Q2)

statistic

-\# obtained by the mathematical manipulation of the data

scaled data

-discrete, so organization involves counting the \# (frequency) of cases falling into each category of measureent

nominal (categorical ) data

-M vs. F getting gall bladder example
-groups M\=10, P\=20

ordinal data

-counting \# of cases (f) of each ordered rank making up the scale
-evaluating effectiveness of new analgesic vs. placebo
-pain scale 1-5, 1 being no pain

incident rates

-\# of new cases of a disorder reported w/in a time period
-IR\=(\# new cases/total population at risk) x base

prevalence rate

-total \# of cases suffering from disorder
-PR\=(\# of existing cases/total population at risk) x base

odds

-ratio of the \# of cases favoring an event to \# of non-events