PSY102 Chapter 8 Lecture Review

What is Language?

Language is a largely __arbitrary__ system of communication that combines symbols in a rule-based way to create meaning 

What are the Components of Language?

The components of language are __lexicon and grammar__

What are some functions of Language?

* To communicate information or transmission of information that include story telling
* Social and emotional functions are used to communicate our social world

What are Hockett’s Linguistic Universals?

* Semanticity
* Arbitrariness
* Displacement
* Productivity
* Culture

Semanticity

Language is conveyed in symbols; letters represent phonemes that when organized create sounds that represent specific ideas

Arbitrariness

There is no inherent connection between a symbol or concept in language

Displacement

Language can be used to represent different time; past, present, future

Productivity

Being able to create new phrases or sentences

Culture

Language is acquired through culture and is influenced by means of cultural variations

What are the 4 levels of Language analysis?

* Phonemes
* Morphemes
* Syntax
* Extralinguistic information

Phonemes

* Categories of sound that we produce with our vocal chords, that does not correspond to the alphabet 
* Smallest units of sound that are recognized as being separate in a given language
* English contains around 45 phonemes but there are 100 phonemes to exist

Morphemes

* Some are single syllables words but also may not be words; they all convey meaning
* Smallest units of meaning in language are made up of phonemes

Syntax

* Grammatical rules that we use to construct sentences
* English is a Subject-Verb-Object language 

Extralinguistic Information

* __Common ground__
* Is the knowledge that is shared between two or more people that are communicating
* __Audience Design__
* Changing the way we say things depending on our audience 
* Taking into account the audience’s knowledge
* __Body Language__ 
* In certain instances, body language helps with inferring the meaning of what is being said 

What did B.F. Skinner contribute to how we learn language?

stated that language is learned through operant conditioning

What did Noam Chomsky contribute to how we learn language?

* States that language is __biologically determined__ and without reinforcement
* Proposes the idea that our brains seem to be ‘pre-wired’ for language at birth (__Language Acquisition Device__)

What is the Critical Period for Learning Language?

States that learning languages is far more easier at a younger age, compared to when older

How do we Learn language?

* Prenatal Stage
* Babbling Stage
* Comprehension VS. Production stage
* First words
* Telegraphic Speech Stage
* Conversations

Prenatal Stage

* We learn Language before we are born
* there is a distinction of different languages that can be noticed before we are even born

Babbling Stage

* 6 months
* Single syllabuses are being produced
* Cryptophasia is the ‘secret’ language twins have created to communicate by babbling that only then can understand; otherwise babbling stage is not used ot communication

Comprehension VS. Production

* Children are able to actually comprehend language and its rules before they learn to produce language through latent learning

First Words

* Around the age of 1 year
* Children say their first words (hi, mama, papa) which are single syllabuses
* Holophrases is a single syllable word that holds more than one meaning

Telegraphic Speech Stage

* Around 2 years old
* Simple sentences are able to be produced and there may be an over exaggeration

Conversations

* Around 4-6 years old
* Children are able to form sentences as they become comfortable with specific grammar and semantics rules

What is language development and bilingualism?

* When children are learning two languages at a time, they will undergo a similar development path as children learning one language (monolinguals)
* It is still common to make mistakes in either language

Linguistic Development

Proposal by Spair and Whorf stating that language determines our thoughts

What are long-term benefits to Bilingualism?

* Enhanced Communication → means people can converse with lots of people
* Metalinguistic Insight → belief that being able to speak a lot of languages enhances human thinking

What did Herbert Simon state?

* we as humans are __bounded by our rationality__ in decision making meaning that we try and make rational decisions
* the capacity for us to do this is constrained/bounded by our cognitive limitations

Who came up with the notion; System 1 and System 2 Thinking?

Tversky and Kahneman

What is System 1 Thinking?

Automatic

* thinking without actually ‘thinking’
* brain’s intrusive thinking which is fast and requires very little energy, but high cognitive reserve
* causes mistakes

What is System 2 Thinking?

Analytical

* thinking analytically, actually ‘thinking’
* brain is thinking slowly but using more energy and effort

What are System 1 Bias’

* Representative
* Availability
* Anchoring
* Framing
* Confirmation
* Overconfidence

Representative Bias

Judgements about the probability of something based on how representative something is

Availability Bias

Estimate the likelihood of occurrence based on how ‘available’ information is to us, based off how much is available for us before we decide

Anchoring Bias

Decisions are affected by an ‘initial’ anchor, regardless if the anchor is arbitrary, we tend to favor the first bit of information we are given

Framing Bias

The way that information is presented affects the decisions people make; gains are more likely to appear more appealing to us than losses

Confirmation Bias

The focus on information that confirms our existing beliefs

Overconfidence Bias

Being overconfident in our bias

What is the 1st problem solving step

__Define the problem__ (be as specific as possible)

What is the 2nd problem solving step

__Generate possible solutions__ (generate a list of around 10 solutions)

What is the 3rd problem solving step

__Evaluate the options and rank__ (carefully eliminate all solutions what are unreasonable, and rank from best to worst)

What is the 4th problem solving step

__Decide on a solution__ (outline the steps to put the solution into real life)

What is the 5th problem solving step

__Implement__ (the actual implementation of the problem and solution into real life)

What is the 6th problem solving step

__Evaluate and Outcome__ (go through what worked and didn’t, and maybe try other options; go back to step 2 if needed)

What are the six strategies to help with Problem Solving?

Trial and error, algorithm, heuristic, divide and conquer, insight, means end analysis

Trail and Error

Continue to try different solutions until the problem is solved

Algorithm

Step by step formula to achieve a desired outcome

Heuristic

General solving framework with mental shortcuts, ‘rule of thumb,’ and not always reliable

Divide and Conquer

The problem is divided into sub-problems and each are solved individually to solve one huge problem

Insight

Sudden moment the solution comes to you

Means and Analysis

When we choose to analyze actions in a series of smaller steps that meet the end result

Problem Solving Obstacles

Distraction by irrelevant information, Mental Sets, and Functional Fixedness

Distraction by Irrelevant Information

The failure to focus on the relevant information when other information is given

Mental sets

Becoming entrenched in one way of solving problems, that the ability to generate new solutions is prevented

Functional Fixedness

Difficulty of perceiving an object being used for something other than what it was designed for