Studied by 9 people
What is Language?
Language is a largely arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols in a rule-based way to create meaning
What are the Components of Language?
The components of language are lexicon and grammar
What are some functions of Language?
To communicate information or transmission of information that include story telling
Social and emotional functions are used to communicate our social world
What are Hockett’s Linguistic Universals?
Semanticity
Arbitrariness
Displacement
Productivity
Culture
Semanticity
Language is conveyed in symbols; letters represent phonemes that when organized create sounds that represent specific ideas
Arbitrariness
There is no inherent connection between a symbol or concept in language
Displacement
Language can be used to represent different time; past, present, future
Productivity
Being able to create new phrases or sentences
Culture
Language is acquired through culture and is influenced by means of cultural variations
What are the 4 levels of Language analysis?
Phonemes
Morphemes
Syntax
Extralinguistic information
Phonemes
Categories of sound that we produce with our vocal chords, that does not correspond to the alphabet
Smallest units of sound that are recognized as being separate in a given language
English contains around 45 phonemes but there are 100 phonemes to exist
Morphemes
Some are single syllables words but also may not be words; they all convey meaning
Smallest units of meaning in language are made up of phonemes
Syntax
Grammatical rules that we use to construct sentences
English is a Subject-Verb-Object language
Extralinguistic Information
Common ground
Is the knowledge that is shared between two or more people that are communicating
Audience Design
Changing the way we say things depending on our audience
Taking into account the audience’s knowledge
Body Language
In certain instances, body language helps with inferring the meaning of what is being said
What did B.F. Skinner contribute to how we learn language?
stated that language is learned through operant conditioning
What did Noam Chomsky contribute to how we learn language?
States that language is biologically determined and without reinforcement
Proposes the idea that our brains seem to be ‘pre-wired’ for language at birth (Language Acquisition Device)
What is the Critical Period for Learning Language?
States that learning languages is far more easier at a younger age, compared to when older
How do we Learn language?
Prenatal Stage
Babbling Stage
Comprehension VS. Production stage
First words
Telegraphic Speech Stage
Conversations
Prenatal Stage
We learn Language before we are born
there is a distinction of different languages that can be noticed before we are even born
Babbling Stage
6 months
Single syllabuses are being produced
Cryptophasia is the ‘secret’ language twins have created to communicate by babbling that only then can understand; otherwise babbling stage is not used ot communication
Comprehension VS. Production
Children are able to actually comprehend language and its rules before they learn to produce language through latent learning
First Words
Around the age of 1 year
Children say their first words (hi, mama, papa) which are single syllabuses
Holophrases is a single syllable word that holds more than one meaning
Telegraphic Speech Stage
Around 2 years old
Simple sentences are able to be produced and there may be an over exaggeration
Conversations
Around 4-6 years old
Children are able to form sentences as they become comfortable with specific grammar and semantics rules
What is language development and bilingualism?
When children are learning two languages at a time, they will undergo a similar development path as children learning one language (monolinguals)
It is still common to make mistakes in either language
Linguistic Development
Proposal by Spair and Whorf stating that language determines our thoughts
What are long-term benefits to Bilingualism?
Enhanced Communication → means people can converse with lots of people
Metalinguistic Insight → belief that being able to speak a lot of languages enhances human thinking
What did Herbert Simon state?
we as humans are bounded by our rationality in decision making meaning that we try and make rational decisions
the capacity for us to do this is constrained/bounded by our cognitive limitations
Who came up with the notion; System 1 and System 2 Thinking?
Tversky and Kahneman
What is System 1 Thinking?
Automatic
thinking without actually ‘thinking’
brain’s intrusive thinking which is fast and requires very little energy, but high cognitive reserve
causes mistakes
What is System 2 Thinking?
Analytical
thinking analytically, actually ‘thinking’
brain is thinking slowly but using more energy and effort
What are System 1 Bias’
Representative
Availability
Anchoring
Framing
Confirmation
Overconfidence
Representative Bias
Judgements about the probability of something based on how representative something is
Availability Bias
Estimate the likelihood of occurrence based on how ‘available’ information is to us, based off how much is available for us before we decide
Anchoring Bias
Decisions are affected by an ‘initial’ anchor, regardless if the anchor is arbitrary, we tend to favor the first bit of information we are given
Framing Bias
The way that information is presented affects the decisions people make; gains are more likely to appear more appealing to us than losses
Confirmation Bias
The focus on information that confirms our existing beliefs
Overconfidence Bias
Being overconfident in our bias
What is the 1st problem solving step
Define the problem (be as specific as possible)
What is the 2nd problem solving step
Generate possible solutions (generate a list of around 10 solutions)
What is the 3rd problem solving step
Evaluate the options and rank (carefully eliminate all solutions what are unreasonable, and rank from best to worst)
What is the 4th problem solving step
Decide on a solution (outline the steps to put the solution into real life)
What is the 5th problem solving step
Implement (the actual implementation of the problem and solution into real life)
What is the 6th problem solving step
Evaluate and Outcome (go through what worked and didn’t, and maybe try other options; go back to step 2 if needed)
What are the six strategies to help with Problem Solving?
Trial and error, algorithm, heuristic, divide and conquer, insight, means end analysis
Trail and Error
Continue to try different solutions until the problem is solved
Algorithm
Step by step formula to achieve a desired outcome
Heuristic
General solving framework with mental shortcuts, ‘rule of thumb,’ and not always reliable
Divide and Conquer
The problem is divided into sub-problems and each are solved individually to solve one huge problem
Insight
Sudden moment the solution comes to you
Means and Analysis
When we choose to analyze actions in a series of smaller steps that meet the end result
Problem Solving Obstacles
Distraction by irrelevant information, Mental Sets, and Functional Fixedness
Distraction by Irrelevant Information
The failure to focus on the relevant information when other information is given
Mental sets
Becoming entrenched in one way of solving problems, that the ability to generate new solutions is prevented
Functional Fixedness
Difficulty of perceiving an object being used for something other than what it was designed for
Note
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