Ap Psych semester 1

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291 Terms

1

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

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sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

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perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

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priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

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Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

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perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

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intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height)

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cornea

the eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris

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pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

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lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

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retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

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accommodation

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

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rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

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cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

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optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

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blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

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fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

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opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision

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feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

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hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

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figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

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grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

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depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

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visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

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binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

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retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

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monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

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phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

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perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

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color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

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frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

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pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

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middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

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cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

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inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

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sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves

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conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

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cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

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place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

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frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

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gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

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vestibular sense

our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance

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sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

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embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

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learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

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stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

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respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

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behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

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neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

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unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

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conditioned response

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

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conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

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acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone

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extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

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spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

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discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

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operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

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law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

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positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

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primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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partial reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

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biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

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preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

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instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

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cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

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latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

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emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

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personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

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learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

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external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

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internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

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self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

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observational learning

learning by observing others

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