APES textbook Unit 9, parts of Units 2 and 4

how underwater earthquakes(tsunamis) form

• underwater volcanic eruption

• giant landslide

• underwater earthquake that vertically displaces water

• they cause massive damage to infrastructure (ports, roads, buildings), disrupting tourism, fishing, and trade, leading to huge repair costs, business interruption, and long-term livelihood loss for affected communities

tectonic plate movement

• hot air rises and as it rises it moves away from core and cools and creates new rock (crust)

lithosphere

• crust and upper part of manthe

oceanic plates

• has ocean above plate

• more dense

continental plate

• land plate

• consists of land mass

divergent plate boundary

• moving away from one another

• ridges or rifts (depending on location)

• magma pushes apart

• mid-Atlantic ridge

• Iceland continental rifting - through its middle

convergent plate boundary

• moving towards each other

continent-continent convergent boundary

• forms mountains because folding rock upward

  • ex.~ Euro. Alps, Himalayas

• no volcanic activity

• create earthquakes

ocean-ocean convergent plate boundary

• when they collide, one runs over the other which causes it to sink into the mantle forming a subduction zone

• subducting plate is bent downward to form a very deep depression in the ocean floor called a trench

  • Mariana’s trench is an example

  • where ocean crust is the oldest

• underwater volcanoes and earthquakes

• if plate vertically displaces, it’ll make a tsunami

continent-ocean convergent plate boundary

• lead to subduction

• volcanic mountain chains

• how they’re created:

  • ocean plate subducts (goes under) land plate because it’s more dense

  • as ocean plate subducts, it brings water with it

  • as ocean plate moves closer to the center of the earth, it heats up and dehydrates

  • the water turns to steam and begins to melt the land plate above it

  • a pool of magma begins to form, increasing in volume and pressure, until it is released as an eruption

• Andes mountains (Western South America)

Transforming plate boundary

• where plates slide past each other

• side to side

• San. Andreas, CA.

• can lead to earthquakes when sudden slip along fault

Ocean Currents

• surface currents: wind driven

• El Nino/ La Nina: equatorial region of the Pacific

• deep currents: temp. and salinity driven

Surface Ocean Currents

• driven by atmospheric circulation patterns

• thermal expansion

• the coriolis effect deflects currents

  • NH: clockwise

  • SH: counterclockwise

• creation of gyres and upwelling

ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation)

• El Nino (warm phase) - about every 2-10 years

• highly irregular

• phases usually last 12-18 months

• mass bleaching events

“normal” or average conditions

• wind blows west at the equator

• on West Coast of America, there’s upwelling (cold water)

• create a current

  • when you move water, water replaces it

El Nino

• warm phase

• a stopping or reversal of the westerlies

• winds diminish

• sea surface temps. warm up because winds slow and there’s less movement of water

• opposite of normal

• off coast of South America, decrease in fish because of warm water temps

• America gets a lot of rain

• droughts in Indonesia

• coral bleaching because of warmer water

La Nina

• cool phase

• winds get stronger

• westerlies get really strong

• South America gets drier and colder

• on average, Pacific ocean gets colder

• economy does pretty well

• may deal with drought issues though

• Indonesia is a monsoon

why does coral matter?

• biodiversity/ habitat for ecosystem

• recreation and fishing

• shoreline buffers/ erosion control

• creation of new drugs

major threats of climate change in the oceans

• sea levels rise

• severe storms because of increased surface temps. and energy potential

• decreased ocean circulation

• ocean heating and leads to coral bleaching

• ocean acidification

coral bleaching

• corals and photosynthetic organisms, symbionts have a mutualistic relationship

• creates 80% of energy for the corals

• corals expel the symbiont to protect themselves (giving it bleached appearance)

• caused by increased temps.

ocean acidification

• the ocean can take about a third of the atmosphere’s CO2 through diffusion

• the more CO2 in the air, the more will diffuse into the oceans to create equilibrium

• CO2 reacts with H2O to from carbonic acid

• diffusion process is natural

• acidity increases but pH decreases because acidity is bottom of the pH scale

equation for ocean acidification

• CO2 + H2O→H+ + HCO-3 →H+ + CO32-

• when you have a lot of H+ you have an acid, the hydrogen ions determine acidity

Bjerrum Plot

• ideal pH for full dissociation for carbonic acid

• if out of range, 2nd dissociation does not happen

• as we shift to more acidic, carbonate ions decrease because bicarbonate increases, 2nd dissociation becomes less available

impacts of ocean acidification

• shell degrade just like an acid would dissolve limestone/ hydrogen ions dissolve shells

• shells cannot build additional mass because carbonate ions are removed from the system

primary pollutants

• emitted into troposphere in a directly harmful form

• ex.~ soot, carbon monoxide

secondary pollutants

• produced via reaction of substances added to the atmosphere with chemicals already present in the atmosphere

• ex.~ ozone in troposphere, carbonic acid

• result of chemical reactions

natural sources of air pollution

• dust storms

• volcanoes

• fires

6 EPA regulated criteria pollutants per Clean Air Act

• sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides (produce acid in the atmosphere)

• carbon oxides

• particulate matter

• lead

• ozone

greenhouse gases

• water vapor

• carbon dioxide

• methane

• nitrous oxide

• ozone

• chlorofluorocarbons

• increasing global warming potential

why are GHGs different from other atmospheric gases?

• they are able to absorb many wavelengths of energy

• not a lot of things that pull out of troposphere

Greenhouse Gases- GWP

• effectiveness of warming

• relative ability of one molecule of a greenhouse gas to contribute to warming

• expressed in comparison to CO2 (set at 1)

• CO2 still contributes the most to climate change

  • less potent, but far more abundant, than other gases

greenhouse gases- primary current sources

• carbon dioxide

  • fossil fuel use

  • land use

  • cement

• methane

  • fossil fuel use

  • agriculture

• nitrous oxide

  • mostly agriculture

  • abt. 1/3 are anthropogenic

how does energy arrive?

• energy from sun is “electromagnetic radiation”

  • goes through space at the speed of light

  • radiation is absorbed or reflected once it gets to earth

  • radiation with shorter wavelengths is more energetic

1st law of thermodynamics

• energy cannot be created or destroyed

2nd law of thermodynamics

• every time energy is transferred, some of the energy becomes lost/less energetic

when solar radiation hits the atmosphere…

• 20% gets absorbed by the upper atmosphere (stratosphere/ UV light)

  • absorbtion of dangerous UV-B and UV-C light by the ozone layer

  • filters out the UV light

• 80% reaches the Earth’s surface

  • 50% is absorbed at the surface (creating Infrared)

  • 30% is reflected (mirror like) back to space (albedo)

Albedo

• reflectivity

• higher the Albeto, greater amount of energy reflected

energy balance on Earth

• if the solar radiation into Earth’s greater than out going longwave radiation, temp. will increase

• increase in temp. results in an increase of longwave radiation out (hotter things radiate more)

• will happen until E in = E out

• greenhouse gases upset this energy balance

the greenhouse effect

• incoming solar radiation

• 1/3 is reflected back into space

• remaining is absorbed, making surface hotter and releasing longwave energy

• infrared radiation is coming out, being caught by greenhouse gases

• more gases, easier to catch energy

• greenhouse gas gets ride of them but keeps receiving more energy

Urban Heat Islands

• cities are starting to recognize we need more space so we are not creating these islands

• cities are having heat islands

• open areas promote movement of energy and heat

• cities and urban/ commercial areas contribute to more reflection and more heat

climate change effects on water

• increase water temp., sea levels rise causing pathogens

• rain is either really heavy or really light

• runoff is increasing bc. of intensity of rain

• soil moisture decreases because of more evaporation

• warmer waters carry pathogens and algae blooms can cause groundwater salinity

forests and climate change

• wildfires

  • leading to an increase in the carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions due to the burning of organic matter

  • affecting the likelihood and scale of wildfires due to warming increasing the loss of vapor pressure and decreases in precipitation.

  • wildfires have slowed or stopped the recovery from previous disturbances, which reduces their capacity to store carbon

• Invasive species lifespans are increasing so they have a greater impact on the trees

• carbon sequestration

  • trees hold carbon, but climate change and loss of forested areas leads to more carbon in air

effects of climate change on biodiversity

• species have range shift, more north or more south

• plants may not properly be aligned with species

• increasing droughts

• increasing wildfires

• increasing natural temps. of summer and winter

• mass migration from areas outside refugia, could disrupt food chain and lead to competition

agriculture and climate change

• ½ of habitable land

• warm winters, leading to dryer conditions

• increasing heat and water demand

• stress on plants

• decreased crop yields, farm revenue, and increased prices

climate change and its impact on health

• increase in disasters

  • wildfires, hurricanes, melting glaciers

• increase in diseases

  • vector born

  • more extreme rainfall

  • increase in pathogen survival

  • heatwaves

  • increase in Vibiro growth (bacteria that can contaminate water)

adaptation to climate change

• actions taken to adjust to current climate change conditions

• preparing for future impacts

• preventing food damage

• adapting to heat (green roofs, etc.)

• adapting farms (planting drought resistant crops, etc.)

• managing ecosystems

• natural disaster plans and signs

carbon tax

• tax on carbon producers per unit of carbon

• mitigation

• hurts consumers because you have to pay more for things like gas

• electricity and car industries are effected

carbon cap and trade

• mitigation

• when government sets certain limit on carbon emissions

• may have to borrow carbon credits

• creates a market

• benefits

  • keeps businesses at certain carbon emissions

  • more efficient and requires less work

• drawbacks

  • does not guarantee friendly level of pollution

  • borrowing carbon emissions from other companies can be cheaper than innovation

  • no guarantee companies who length credit won’t give it away

• targets commercial industries

how climate change effects energy systems

• extreme temps., storms, fires can damage energy infrastructure like wind turbines

• hydropower is stressed by droughts

• increased energy demand

• communities and energy systems are vulnerable to compounding ecological factors

• decarbonization

  • requires lots of resources

  • costly

  • vulnerability zones (urban areas)

  • longer restoration times

  • economic shift in work

oceans and climate change

• decreased pH

  • more acidic

  • CO2 goes into water and makes carbonic acid

  • stress on marine life

  • loss of biodiversity

  • east away at shells (shells are basic)

• increase for ocean levels

  • melting glaciers

  • habitat loss

  • destruction of property

  • flooding

• ocean is warming

  • increased CO2

  • stress on marine organisms

  • shift in disease

  • decreased biodiversity

  • destruction of property

  • cause of coral bleaching

  • storms are worse

Where does air rise and create rainy conditions?

• in areas of low pressure, primarily at the equator (0 degrees) and around 60° latitude, driven by intense heating or the convergence of air masses (like at fronts)

• hot air rises and is very humid but eventually gets cooler and creates rain

• this rising, moist air cools, condenses into clouds, and causes precipitation, leading to tropical rainforests near the equator and stormy climates at higher latitudes, contrasting with dry zones where air sinks

Where does air descend and create dry conditions?

• in high-pressure zones, primarily around 30° North and South latitudes due to Earth's Hadley and Polar cells

• super cold air sinks and dry land so it’s creating deserts

How does the rotation of the Earth deflect air on Earth?

• to the right in NH

• to the left in SH

Where are most rainforests found?

• rising, cooling, condensing air

• 0 degress and and 60 degress latitude

• in the tropics, especially in South America

  • because these equatorial regions receive consistent, intense sunlight and heavy rainfall, creating the warm, moist conditions needed for lush growth year-round

Where are most deserts found?

• descending, expanding air

• around 30° North and South latitude (the “horse latitudes”) and on the western sides of continents because of global air circulation (Hadley Cells), high-pressure zones, and cold ocean currents, leading to sinking, dry air that prevents rain

where oldest and newest crust are found on earth

• oldest: found in ancient continental cores called cratons, like parts of Australia

• newest: mid-ocean ridges

a place you can find each plate boundary and hotspots

• The Pacific Ring of Fire offers the best concentration, especially near the Pacific Plate's edges

• with hotspots like Hawaii or Yellowstone (though Yellowstone is continental)

• while Iceland uniquely sits on a divergent boundary (Mid-Atlantic Ridge) with hotspots, but lacks major transform faults in one spot

What is the most abundant greenhouse gas? Why don’t we use it as an indicator of climate change?

• water vapor but carbon dioxide is the primary human-driven indicator of climate change because it's the main long-lived gas humans emit, controlling the climate system

• whereas water vapor acts as a feedback, increasing with warming and amplifying the effect

What natural event can cause a net global cooling impact? (Cause of the last mini ice age)

• large, explosive volcanic eruptions

What are some ways in which we study past climates?

• using natural clues, called proxies, found in ice cores, tree rings, lake/ocean sediments, and fossils, which reveal ancient temperatures, atmospheric gases (like CO2 trapped in ice), and rainfall patterns

Which organisms in the sea are impacted by ocean acidification? How does this impact humans?

• corals, oysters, clams, mussels, and plankton by making it harder to form shells, weakening structures, and affecting food webs, which harms humans through reduced seafood supply, economic losses

how greenhouse effect works

• sunlight warms the planet, but gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane trap some of that heat, preventing it from escaping back to space, keeping Earth livable

natural sources of greenhouse gases

• respiration (CO2), permafrost (CH4), decomposition (N2O), natural gases from vegetation (O3)

• emit key greenhouse gases like Carbon Dioxide, Methane, and Nitrous Oxide from processes such as volcanic eruptions, decomposition, ocean release, wildfires, and animal respiration

• with wetlands, soils, and oceans being major contributors, alongside water vapor from natural cycles

• These gases trap heat, but human activities have significantly increased their atmospheric concentrations.

anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases

• fossil fuels (CO2 + CH4(natural gas)), fertilizers/ cattle manure (N2O), transportation (O3)

• primarily CO2, methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), include burning fossil fuels for energy (electricity, transport, industry), deforestation, industrial processes (cement, chemicals), agriculture (fertilizers, livestock), and waste, releasing gases that trap heat and warm the planet

Why do earthquakes form?

• the sudden slip of tectonic plates along faults in the Earth's crust, releasing built-up stress as seismic waves that shake the ground

• especially on transform boundaries

How are volcanic mountain ranges formed on convergent plate boundaries?

• through subduction, where one plate dives under another, melts, and the magma rises to form volcanoes in arcs (like the Andes)

both ocean acidification and coral bleaching affect coral but in different ways, how?

• Ocean acidification weakens corals by making it harder to build skeletons (calcification), like osteoporosis for the sea

• coral bleaching is the stress response (usually from heat) where corals expel their food-providing algae, leaving them white and starving, though acidification can worsen bleaching

• acidification attacks the structure, slowing growth and making it brittle, whereas bleaching attacks the energy source, starving the coral