Chapter 2: Biological Beginnings and Prenatal Development Flashcards

Flashcards based on lecture notes for Chapter 2, covering evolutionary perspective, genetic foundations, heredity-environment interaction, prenatal development, and reproductive challenges.

What is natural selection?

The evolutionary process that favors individuals of a species that are best adapted to survive and reproduce.

What does evolutionary psychology emphasize?

The importance of adaptation, reproduction, and 'survival of the fittest' in explaining behavior.

What is the significance of an extended childhood period from an evolutionary perspective?

It allows humans time to develop a large brain and learn the complexities of human societies.

What is Albert Bandura's view on evolution and social behavior?

He argues for a bidirectional view where organisms can alter and construct new environmental conditions, rejecting 'one-sided evolutionism'.

What are chromosomes?

Threadlike structures that contain the genetic substance deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

What is DNA?

A complex molecule that contains genetic information in a double helix shape.

What are genes?

Short segments composed of DNA that help cells reproduce and assemble proteins.

What affects the activity of genes?

Their environment; genetic expression is influenced by both internal and external factors.

What is mitosis?

The process by which each chromosome in the cell's nucleus duplicates itself.

What is meiosis?

The process by which cells divide into gametes (sperm/egg), which have half the genetic material of the parent cell.

What is a zygote?

A single cell formed during fertilization when an egg and sperm fuse.

What is the chromosomal configuration for males and females?

Males: XY; Females: XX.

What is genotype?

A person's entire genetic material.

What is phenotype?

A person's external, observable characteristics.

What happens when a gene is dominant and one is recessive?

The dominant gene exerts its effect, overriding the potential influence of the recessive gene.

What is X-linked inheritance?

When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome.

What does 'polygenically determined' mean?

A characteristic is the product of the interaction of many different genes.

What is Down syndrome?

A chromosomally transmitted abnormality caused by the presence of an extra chromosome.

What is Klinefelter syndrome?

A genetic disorder in males with an extra X chromosome (XXY).

What is Fragile X syndrome (FXS)?

A genetic disorder resulting from abnormality in the X chromosome, leading to mental deficiencies.

What is Turner syndrome?

A chromosome disorder in females missing an X chromosome (XO).

What is the XYY syndrome?

A disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome.

What is Phenylketonuria (PKU)?

A genetic disorder in which the individual cannot properly metabolize an amino acid.

What is sickle cell anemia?

A genetic disorder affecting the red blood cells, common in African Americans.

What does behavior genetics seek to discover?

The influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development.

What is studied in twin studies?

The behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared to fraternal twins.

What are heredity-environment correlations?

The concept that individuals’ genes influence the types of environments to which they are exposed.

What are passive genotype-environment correlations?

Occur when biological parents provide a rearing environment that is genetically related to the child.

What are evocative genotype-environment correlations?

Occur because a child's genotype elicits certain types of physical and social environments.

What are active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations?

Occur when children and adolescents seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating.

What are shared environmental experiences?

Siblings' common experiences, such as their parents' personalities or intellectual orientation, the family's socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live.

What are nonshared environmental experiences?

A child's unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared with a sibling.

What is the epigenetic view?

The view that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment.

What is Gene × Environment interaction (G × E)?

The interaction of a specific measured variation in DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment.

How long does prenatal development typically last?

Between 266 days and 280 days (38 to 40 weeks; around 9 months).

What are the three periods of prenatal development?

Germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

What is the germinal period?

The first 2 weeks after conception, from zygote creation to uterine wall implantation.

What is the embryonic period?

From 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception; cell differentiation intensifies, support systems form, and organs appear.

What is the endoderm?

The inner layer of cells in the embryo, which develops into the digestive and respiratory systems.

What is the ectoderm?

The outer layer of cells in the embryo, which becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors, and skin.

What is the mesoderm?

The middle layer of cells in the embryo, which becomes the circulatory system, bones, muscles, and excretory and reproductive systems.

What does the amnion do?

It encloses a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats.

What does the umbilical cord do?

It connects the baby to the placenta, containing two arteries and one vein.

What is the placenta?

A disk-shaped group of tissues where small blood vessels from the mother and offspring intertwine.

What is organogenesis?

The process of organ formation during the first 2 months of prenatal development.

When does the fetal period begin?

2 months after conception and lasts for about 7 months.

What are trimesters?

Equal 3-month periods into which prenatal development can be divided.

Approximately how many neurons are babies born with?

100 billion.

What is the neural tube?

The first part of the nervous system to form, developing from the ectoderm roughly 18–24 days after conception.

What is Anencephaly?

A birth defect resulting from the highest regions of the brain failing to develop.

What is Spina bifida?

A birth defect that results in paralysis of the lower limbs to varying degrees.

What is Neurogenesis?

The massive proliferation of new neurons, beginning around 5 weeks.

What is Neuronal migration?

Neurons moving to their destination in the brain, building brain structures as they go, beginning approximately 6–24 weeks after conception.

What is a teratogen?

Any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes.

What is teratology?

The field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects.

What effects can alcohol consumption have on a fetus?

It can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), including facial deformities and intellectual disability.

What are potential effects of nicotine exposure during prenatal development?

Increased risk of preterm births, fetal death, low birth weight, respiratory problems, and ADHD.

What can cocaine exposure during prenatal development lead to?

Reduced birth weight, impaired motor development, lower arousal, and deficits in information processing.

How might maternal caffeine intake impact prenatal development?

It is linked to lower birth weight and babies being born small for gestational age.

What are some diseases/infections that can produce birth defects or damage during birth?

Rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, and HIV/AIDS.

What are the effects of less-than-adequate folic acid consumption during pregnancy?

Neural tube defects.

What are some of the risks of advanced maternal age (over 35) during pregnancy?

Increased risk for low birth weight, preterm birth, and fetal death; risk of Down syndrome increases beginning at age 35.

What effects can intense fears, anxieties, and stress have during pregnancy?

Preterm delivery and low birth weight and a greater risk the child will have emotional or cognitive problems, ADHD, and language delay.

What are ultrasound sonography used for?

Prenatal medical procedure used to see the fetus's inner structures and detect structural abnormalities.

What is chorionic villus sampling (CVS)?

A prenatal test that detects genetic defects and chromosome abnormalities by testing a small sample from the placenta.

What is amniocentesis?

A prenatal test to detect chromosome and metabolic disorders by testing a sample of amniotic fluid.

What does maternal blood screening identify?

The risk of some disorders such as spina bifida and Down syndrome.

What is Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis (NIPD)?

An alternative to chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis.

What is Infertility?

Infertility is experienced by 10–16% of couples in Canada.

What is in vitro fertilization (IVF)?

A technique of high-tech assisted reproduction for infertile couples, in which eggs (ova) and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish.

What is Adoption?

Adoption is the social and legal process by which a parent–child relationship is established between persons unrelated at birth.

What is Surrogacy?

Surrogacy is a practice of arranged pregnancy, or third-party reproduction, in which another female bears a child for an individual or couple.