Psych 250 Exam 1 Study Guide

Definition of development

A process of age-related changes across the lifespan, changes in growth, feelings, patterns of thinking.

Five assumptions of life-span perspective

• Development is lifelong

• Development is multidimensional

• Development is multidirectional (a joint expression of growth and decline)

• Development is highly plastic (open to change)

• Development is affected by multiple interacting influences

Elaborate on “Development is multidirectional”

• Multiple mechanisms (biological, psychological, social)

• Multiple domains (physical, cognitive development, psychosocial)

Elaborate on “Development is affected by multiple interacting influences”

Age-graded influences, history-graded influences, nonnormative influences

Age-graded influences

Influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group (e.g. most kids learn to walk at age 1)

History-graded influences

Forces that influence the behavior and attitudes of individuals in a certain generation at a formative time of their lives (e.g. pandemic, war)

Non-normative influences

Unusual occurrences that have a major impact but not applicable to many people (e.g. car crash, cancer, winning lottery)

Resilience

The ability to adapt effectively and achieve positive outcomes despite adversity or risk

Major protective factors that foster resilience

• Personal characteristics (e.g. high intelligence, easygoing, self-regulated temperament, talents)

• Warm relationship with at least one parent

• Supportive relationships outside the immediate family

• Community resources and opportunities

Definition and function of theory

A theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predict behavior. Useful because they offer practical guidance in our everyday decision making.

Dimensions on which theories differ

• View of the developing person —> organismic vs. mechanistic

• View of the course of development —> continuous vs. discontinuous development

• View of the determinants of development —> contributions of nature vs. nurture

View of the developing person

• Organismic theories – change stimulated from within the organism, active

• Mechanistic theories – change stimulated by the environment, passive

View of the course of development

• Continuous development – gradually adding on more

• Discontinuous development – new understandings emerge at particular periods/stages… qualitative changes

View of the determinants of development

• Nature – genetic, inborn qualities

• Nurture – learning and experiences

Premises of Freud’s Psychosexual theory

A. Basic personality and psychological functioning is determined by:

• Id: (1) present at birth, (2) represents biological needs/desires, (3) requires immediate gratification; unconscious

• Ego: (1) conscious, rational, problem-solving part, (2) emerges in early infancy, (3) restricts id; masters and controls urges

• Superego: (1) moral and ethical component, (2) develops from ages 3 to 6, (3) includes conscious and ego-ideal

B. Personality development is determined by how parents manage child’s early sexual and aggressive drives

General premises of Erikson’s theory

Similarities & differences between Freud’s & Erikson’s theories

• Covers the lifespan

• Viewed personality development as a psychosocial process (social interactions + culture)

• Emphasized psychosocial crisis/conflict – successful mastery results in personality strength/virtue

• More emphasis on ego than id

Ego identity

Basic sense of who we are as individuals in terms of self-concept and self-image

General contributions & limitations of psychoanalytic perspective

Contributions:

• Emphasis on the individuals’ unique life history

• Inspired research on many aspects of emotional and social development

Limitations:

• So strongly committed to in-depth study of individuals  failed to consider other methods

• Many psychoanalytical ideas are too vague to be tested empirically

Traditional behaviorism - Watson

• Observable stimulus – response associations

• Classical conditioning

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

• Consequences of a behavior determine whether or not it will be repeated in the future

• Reinforcement – increases likelihood (positive = something added, negative = something removed)

• Punishment – decreases likelihood

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

• Model/observational learning – results from observing other people

• Humans as cognitive beings – active processing of info from the environment plays a major role in learning

• Complex process – many factors govern decision-making – e.g. who to model?

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

• Nature of child: active, naïve, scientist – constructivist

• Nature of change: learning in stages; thinking becomes qualitatively different across these stages

• Processes of change

  • Assimilation – children incorporate new info into existing knowledge systems

  • Accommodation – children change existing knowledge systems to accommodate new info

Contributions and limitations of Piaget’s theory

Contributions

• Convinced the field that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich knowledge

• Increased research on children’s conceptions of themselves, other people, and human relationships

• Encouraged the development of educational philosophies and programs that emphasize discovery learning and direct contact with the environment

Limitations

• Underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers

• Children’s performances on Piagetian problems can be improved with training

Information Processing Theory

• Human mind as symbol manipulating system through which information flows - use computer analogies to model - focus on steps involved in mental activities

• Not stagelike - perceive change as increases in children’s knowledge

Developmental neuroscience

Studies the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person’s cognitive processing and behavior patterns

Ethology

Concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and it’s evolutionary history

Sensitive period

A time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

• Focuses on how culture is transmitted

• Higher mental functions grow out of social interactions and dialogues - cooperative dialogues

• Cognitive development is a socially mediated process

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

• Person develops within a multi-layered system of relationships

• 5 systems

  • Microsystem - person’s immediate environment

  • Mesosystem - connections between microsystems

  • Exosystem - outside contexts that affect microsystem

  • Macrosystem - cultural laws, values, customs

  • Chronosystem - temporal component - change over lifecourse and history

Systematic observation

Organized observation of behavior without self report (naturalistic observation, structured observation)

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in a natural real-world setting
Example: Watching children on a playground

• Strength - high realism

• Limitation - no control, no cause and effect

Structured observation

Observing behavior in a controlled setting using predefined categories.
Example: Behavior recorded in a lab with a checklist

• Strength - more control and consistency

• Limitation - less natural behavior

Self-report methods

Participants report their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Clinical interview

Flexible, open-ended interview.
Example: Therapist asks follow-up questions

• Strength - detailed information

• Limitation - interviewer bias

Structured interview

Interview with standardized questions.

Example: Everyone asked the same questions

• Strength - reliable and consistent

• Limitation - less depth

Questionnaire

Written or online survey

Example: Rate statements from 1 to 5

• Strength - fast, inexpensive, efficient

• Limitation - self-report bias

Clinical/Case Study

In-depth study of one person or small group

Example: Rare disorder studied closely

• Strength - detailed insight

• Limitation - cannot generalize

Ethnography

In-depth study of a culture through immersion

Example: Researcher lives in the community

• Strength - rich cultural understanding

• Limitation - time-consuming, researcher bias

Correlational design

Research method that examines the relationship between two variables without manipulation.

Correlational coefficient

A numerical value (–1 to +1) showing the strength and direction of a relationship.

Independent variable

The variable manipulated or measured by the researcher.

Dependent variable

The variable measured as the outcome.

Random assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance.

Field experiment

An experiment conducted in a real-world setting with manipulation of variables.

Natural (Quasi) experiment

Study where the independent variable occurs naturally and is not manipulated.

Cross-sectional design

Compares different age groups at one time.

Example: Researchers compare memory ability in 6, 12, and 18 year-olds at the same time

• Strength - fast

• Limitation - cohort effects

Longitudinal design

Studies the same participants over time.

Example: Researchers follow the same group of children from age 5 to age 15, testing memory every 2 years.

• Strength - tracks individual development

• Limitation - time-consuming; participant dropout

Sequential design

Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

Example: Researchers study two age groups (5-year-olds and 10-year-olds) and follow both groups over 10 years.

• Strength - reduces cohort effects

• Limitation - complex

Cohort effects

Differences in behavior or abilities caused by shared experiences of a specific age group, not by age itself.

Genotype

Genetic make-up, set of genes inherited

Phenotype

The way an individuals genotype is expressed in observable characteristics - depends on genes and environment

Gene

Segment of DNA along the length of the chromosomes - contains hereditary instructions

DNA

Active biochemical substance that programs the cells to manufacture vital protein substances

Chromosomes

Rodlike structure inside cell nucleus that store and transmit genetic info (autosome & sex chromosomes)

Autosome

Regular pairs (22/23)

Sex chromosomes

23rd pair - determine sex of child

Chromosomes are made of

DNA

Genes come in different forms known as

Alleles (homozygous & heterozygous)

Homozygous

Alleles in the pair are the same

Heterozygous

Alleles in the pair differ

Sex cells are called

Gametes (sperm, ova) - hold 23 chromosomes instead of 46

Dominant-recessive

Dominant gene in pair overrides recessive gene

Incomplete dominance

Both the dominant and recessive allele are expressed

X-linked inheritance

• Recessive gene carried on X chromosome in 23rd pair

• Woman are protected; men are not protected

Genomic imprinting

• Genes chemically marked or imprinted & will behave differently depending on whether they came from a mother or father

Polygenic inheritance

Multiple genes interact to produce a characteristic

Mutation

A random change in a gene or DNA sequence.

In Vitro Fertilization

Fertilization of an egg outside the body, then implanted in the uterus.

Surrogate Motherhood

A woman carries a pregnancy for another person or couple.

Reproductive Frontiers

New and advancing technologies that expand reproductive possibilities.

Heritability estimates

Measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors

• Cannot be applied to a single individual

• Not a precise statistic

• Personality traits - rates typically range from .4 to .5

• Schizophrenia - .8

Kinship studies

Examine patterns of behaviors and traits in family members

Concordance rates

Percentage of instances in which both twins show a trait when it is present in one twin

Dizygotic (fraternal) twins

Two fertilized ova - share 50% of genes

Monozygotic (identical) twins

One zygote that divides into 2 individuals - share 100% of genes

Gene-environment interaction

Individuals, because of their different genetic makeups, will differ in their reactions to qualities of the environment

Passive genotype/environment interactions

• Parents provide environment influenced by own heredity

• Because they are genetically related, child may be predisposed to be responsive to this environment

Evocative genotype/environment interactions

Different genetically-based attributes evoke certain responses

Niche-picking/Active influences

• Individuals seek out environments most compatible with their genetic predispositions

  • Niche-picking is more central as children age

Epigensis

Development results from ongoing bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of environment

Epigenetic transmission of maternal stress

Stress experienced by a mother can alter gene expression in her child without changing the DNA sequence.

Socioeconomic status

Assessed by parents education, occupation prestige, income

Families confronted with issues due to poverty

• Inadequate housing and dangerous and unhealthy neighborhoods

• More household disruption, daily hassles, frequent crises

• Fewer neighborhood resources (parks, supermarkets)

• Fewer cognitive enrichment opportunities, both at home and in their neighborhoods

Consequences of poverty for the child

• Discipline and parenting

• Physical health status

• Socio-emotional functioning

• Cognitive functioning

Evans & English (2002)

Examined the impact of poverty, testing exposure to multiple risks and their impact on stress and socio-emotional adjustment

• 168 U.S. households that fell at or below poverty lines and 119 middle-income families

• Focused on children in grades 3-5 (97% white)

• Measures

  • 3 psychosocial stressors: exposure to violence, family turmoil, family separation

  • 3 physical stressors (crowding, noise level, housing quality)

  • Socio-emotional adjustment

  • Chronic stress

• Findings

  • Poor children exposed more often to each stressor domain than middle-income children

  • Poverty —> greater psychological distress & more chronic stress

Collectivism

Prioritizing group goals and harmony over individual desires.

Individualism

Prioritizing personal goals and independence over group needs.

Development niche

The interaction of components that affect what goes on within the microsystem and determines the unique world of the child.

Developmental niche components

• Culture shapes multiple dimension of our everyday physical and social settings

  • Size and type of living space

  • Sleeping and eating schedules & locations

  • Social conditions (resources, people, material goods)

  • Daily activities of children

• Culture shapes childcare & childrearing customs

• Culture shapes overall psychology of the caregivers

  • Goals

  • Expectations

  • Morals

What is a Bad Kid? (Crystal & Stevenson, 1995)

• Expected that perceptions of deviance, like perceptions of normalcy, would be influenced by sociocultural values

• Surveyed 200+ 11th graders & their mothers: Minneapolis, Taipei, Sendai

• Think of what a “bad kid” would be

• Cultural differences in responses

General dynamics of conception

• Ovulation - approx. every 28 hours

• Ovum survives 24 hours

• Sperm cells survive up to 5 or 6 days

• Brief window

• Fertilization = union of sperm & ovum; genetic material fuses

3 prenatal periods

Germinal, embryonic, fetal

Period of the Zygote (Germinal Period)

• First stage of prenatal development

• From fertilization —> implantation

• Lasts about 2 weeks (ends with implantation…7-9 days after fertilization)

Zygote

Fertilized egg (germinal period)

Blastocyst

Hollow-fluid filled ball of cells (germinal period)

Embryonic disk

Cells on inside - become new organism (germinal period)

Trophoblast

Outer ring of cells - will develop into these 3 lie-support systems (germinal period)

Trophoblast #1 - Amnion

Protective covering - encloses organism in amniotic fluid, a cushion & temperature regulator (germinal period)

Placenta

A disc-shaped mass of tissue-partial filter - permits food and oxygen to reach organism and waste products to be carried away (germinal period)