1800-1848

The first and last topics of each unit are just reviews so there are no note for them. These notes are based on Heimler History videos with some additions.

4.2 - Policy Debates in Early America

The Rise of Political Parties

• In the early American republic, two main political parties emerged

• The Federalist Party

  • Led by Alexander Hamilton

  • Favored a powerful central government and manufacturing interests

• The Democratic Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson.

  • Advocated for a limited central government and agrarianism, or a nation of self-sustaining farmers, also known as yeoman farmers.

The Election of 1800

• In the election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson won the presidency, marking a significant transfer of power between rival parties.

• This event was dubbed the Revolution of 1800.

Policy Debates over Federal Power

• The Democratic Republicans, led by Jefferson, sought to limit the power of the federal government.

  • Abolished the Whiskey Tax, which had sparked the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794

  • Minimized the military and reduced the number of federal jobs

• The Louisiana Purchase was against Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican ideas. The sale would’ve doubled the country's territorial holdings. Jefferson's strict constructionist views clashed with his desire to expand American territory, leading him to justify the purchase on grounds of promoting westward expansion and reducing European influence.

• Corps of Discovery

  • Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, this expedition explored the northern Louisiana Territory, mapping the region and establishing diplomatic relationships with Native American tribes

The Supreme Court and Federal Power

• Under the leadership of Chief Justice John Marshall, the Supreme Court expanded federal power through several landmark cases:

  • Marbury v. Madison (1803): The court established the power of judicial review, declaring that it had the authority to declare laws unconstitutional.

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): The court ruled that national law takes precedence over state laws in cases of conflict, further expanding federal power.

Policy Battles with European Powers

• Barbary Wars: The United States paid tribute to the Barbary States to protect its merchant ships. However, when Tripoli demanded higher payments, Jefferson refused, leading to intermittent fighting with the Barbary Pirates.

• War of 1812: The war with Britain began due to issues with impressment of American citizens into the British military and trade restrictions. The war lasted until 1815.

Causes of the War of 1812

• Impressment of American citizens

• Conflicts on the frontier.

Impressment of American Citizens

• The British Navy had a habit of forcing American colonists onto their ships to fight in British wars.

• This practice was unacceptable to American citizens, especially after the American Revolution.

• The British were impressing American citizens to fight in their wars, which was a violation of American sovereignty.

Conflicts on the Frontier

• Americans were eager to expand westward, but they encountered American Indians who were unwilling to give up their land.

• The British sent aid to a confederacy of Indians who were attacking westward-migrating settlers.

• Although the British aid was minimal, it was enough to provoke American anger and resentment.

Political Context

• The House of Representatives was controlled by Democratic-Republicans, who were eager for war with Britain to defend America's national honor.

• A group of Democratic-Republicans, known as the War Hawks, pushed for war with Britain.

• The Federalists, especially in New England, opposed the war and even held a meeting called the Hartford Convention, where they threatened to secede from the union over the disagreement.

Consequences of the War

• America did not lose the war, which led to a surge in nationalism throughout the states.

• The Federalist Party, which opposed the war, was seen as out of touch with American values and eventually declined.

• The war marked the beginning of the end of the Federalist Party.

4.3 - Debates about Federal Power

The War of 1812 and Regional Interests

• The War of 1812 was a national war, but it highlighted competing regional interests.

• Federalists in New England opposed the war and even threatened secession.

• The war showed weaknesses in the US, including:

  • Lack of a reliable source of credit (National Bank's charter expired in 1811)

  • Weak infrastructure and transportation systems

Henry Clay's American System

• Henry Clay proposed the American System to address these problems and unify the national economy.

• The American System

• Federally funded internal improvements: roads and canals to benefit farmers and merchants

• Federal tariffs: taxes on imported goods to protect US manufacturers

• Second Bank of the United States: a national currency to keep the economy stable

Regional Tensions and Westward Expansion

• Presidents Madison and Monroe objected to federally funded internal improvements, citing regional interests and concerns about federal overreach.

• Westward expansion led to an increase in Americans settling the frontier, exacerbated by improved roads and cheap land.

• The question of slavery became a major issue, particularly with Missouri's application for statehood in 1819.

The Missouri Compromise (1820)

Henry Clay's compromise allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state and created a new free state in Maine.

Key Provisions:

• Missouri Statehood: Missouri enters the Union as a slave state

• Maine Statehood: Maine is created as a free state to maintain Senate balance

• 36° 30' Line: Boundary established for future slave and free states

4.4 Expansion and Foreign Policy

Territorial Disputes and the Treaty of Ghent

• In 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain, but it left many territorial claims unresolved

• President James Monroe sent John Quincy Adams to London to negotiate a treaty.

The Rush-Bagot Agreement and the Oregon Territory

• In 1817, Adams negotiated the Rush-Bagot Agreement, which established the border between the U.S. and Canada along the 49th parallel.

• Established a joint U.S.-British occupation of the disputed Oregon Territory for the next ten years.

The Florida Territory and the Seminole Indians

• The Florida Territory, belonging to Spain, was experiencing governance issues due to Spain's involvement in rebellions in their South American colonies.

• As a result, Seminole Indians, runaway slaves, and white settlers were crossing the border and raiding U.S. territory.

• Monroe sent General Andrew Jackson to Florida in 1817 to stop the raids.

• However, Jackson attacked the Spanish

• Spanish agreed to forgive them to prevent war

The Adams-Onis Treaty

• In 1819, John Quincy Adams negotiated the Adams-Onis Treaty

  • Sold the Florida Territory to the U.S. official

  • Formally defined the border between U.S. territory and Spanish holdings in the West.

The Monroe Doctrine

• By 1822, several Latin American countries had gained independence from European colonial powers.

• President Monroe quickly recognized their independence and established diplomatic relations with them.

• This led to the formal articulation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, which stated that the lands and nations in the Western Hemisphere were under U.S. influence and protection.

Trade and the Market Revolution

• The expansion of U.S. territory and influence also led to an increase in trade.

• By the late 1820s, Americans had established a thriving trade relationship with Mexico, and U.S. merchant ships carried goods across the Pacific

• Had a robust trade in Chinese porcelains and silks.

4.5 Market Revolution

Market Revolution

• The Market Revolution was the linking of northern industries with western and southern farms, created by advances in agriculture, industry, and transportation.

Innovations in Transportation

• National Road (Cumberland Road): connected Maryland on the east coast to Illinois in the heartland, stretching for 1,000 miles, all paved.

• Canals: human-constructed rivers, such as the Erie Canal (constructed in New York in 1825), which lined western farms with Eastern manufacturing and created the occasion for a flurry of canal building throughout the states.

• Steamboat: allowed for reliable transportation of goods and raw materials on water, increasing efficiency of trade.

• Railroad: replaced canals as the main technology linking regions for trade and manufacture, with local and state governments granting special loans, tax breaks, and land to railroad companies.

Innovations in Industrial Technology

• New patent laws: protected the rights of inventors, making the environment ripe for new technology.

• Factory system: born in America in the 1820s, allowing for mass production of goods with precision and interchangeable parts.

• Interchangeable parts created by Eli Whitney

Innovations in Agriculture

• Commercial farming: replaced subsistence farming as the norm, focusing on growing cash crops like cotton or tobacco for trade at local and distant markets.

• Cotton Gin

  • Significantly speed up the process of separating cotton seeds from cotton fibers, making southern cotton a major cash crop.

  • Created by Eli Whitney

• Cash crops: grown exclusively for trade, linking American farms to American industry and international industry.

4.6 - Market Revolution’s Effect & Migration

Effects of the Market Revolution

• The Market Revolution led to a significant increase in migration to the United States, particularly from Europe.

• Irish Immigrants: Fled their home country due to the Irish Potato Famine, which led to hunger and starvation.

• German Immigrants: Came to the United States for various reasons

  • Crop failures that led to displacement

  • Disillusionment with the failure of democratic revolutions in 1848

  • Seeking a democratic way of life

Immigration Statistics

• Many of these immigrants settled on the eastern seaboard and worked in the industrial sector. The availability of cheap labor led to the expansion of northern industry.

Impact of Immigration on Urban Landscape

• Immigrants brought their culture with them

• They created Synagogues (Jewish), Churches, and Convents (Catholic)

• They also settled on land out west, developing new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.

Nativist Reactions

Nativists in the 1830s and 1840s:

• Spewed stereotypical invective against Catholicsand Jews

• Portrayed Jews as avaricious, underhanded moneylenders and Catholics as agents of the pope sent to overturn American culture

Emergence of the Middle Class

The expansion of industry and prosperity led to the development of an emerging middle class in the North, characterized by:

• Businessmen

• Shopkeepers

• Journalists

• Doctors

• Lawyers

• The middle class developed its own society

  • Education

  • Temperance (moderation in alcohol consumption)

  • Religious affiliation (especially Protestant affiliation)

Leisure Activities

• The middle class had the means to spend money on leisure activities

• Attending plays

• Going to circuses

• Spectating sporting events

The Cult of Domesticity

• The cult of domesticity was an idea presented to women through various media.

• This idea took firm hold, especially in the middle class, and reinforced the separation of public and private spheres.

Women in Factories

• Women worked in factories, like the Lowell Factory in Massachusetts

• Worked six days a week for meager wages

• Worked 12-13 hours a day

• Were closely supervised by bosses who controlled every aspect of their lives, including their leisure time

4.7 Expanding Democracy

Causes of Expansion

• Panic of 1819: The Second Bank of the United States tightened lending policies to control inflation.

  • Closure of state banks

  • Decrease in demand for imported American goods (e.g., cotton)

  • Economic turmoil, unemployment, and bankruptcies

• Frontier settlers and working men demanded the franchise (right to vote) to hold politicians accountable

Effects of Expansion

• By 1825, most eastern states joined western states in substantially lowering or eliminating property qualifications for voting

• Universal white male suffrage expanded, allowing more people to participate in the political process

Realignment of Political Parties

• The Democratic-Republican party fragmented into these two factions

• The election of 1824 was marked by factionalism, with four candidates:

  • John Quincy Adams

  • Henry Clay

  • William Crawford

  • Andrew Jackson

• The election resulted in no candidate winning a majority of electoral college votes, leading to the selection of the president by the House of Representatives

• Andrew Jackson and his supporters alleged a corrupt bargain when Henry Clay threw his support behind John Quincy Adams and was subsequently appointed Secretary of State

4.8 Andrew Jackson and Federal Power

The Rise of Political Parties

• In the 1820s-1830s, the Democratic-Republican party split into two factions: the Democrats and the Whigs.

  • Democrats:

    • Led by Andrew Jackson

    • Valued limited federal power, free trade, and local rule

    • Opposed corporate monopolies, high tariffs, and the national bank

  • Whigs:

    • Led by Henry Clay

    • Valued a strong central government

    • Supported Henry Clay's American System, which included policies like:

      • National bank

      • Protective tariffs

    • Federally funded internal improvements

Debates over Federal Power

Tariffs

• A tariff is a tax on imported goods. High tariffs make imported goods more expensive, encouraging people to buy domestic goods.

• The Tariff of 1828 raised duties on imports by 35-45%, benefiting northern manufacturers and western farmers, but hurting southern states that relied on imported goods.

• Nullification: The doctrine developed by John C. Calhoun, which argued that states could nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional.

National Bank

• The Second Bank of the United States was established in 1816 to stabilize the economy.

• Andrew Jackson believed the bank was unconstitutional and favored the wealthy, leading to his veto of the re-charter bill in 1832.

Internal Improvements

• The American System was Henry Clay's plan to develop the nation's infrastructure through roads and canals, which divided the two parties.

  • Whigs: Supported internal improvements as necessary for national growth.

  • Democrats: Saw internal improvements as federal overreach.

Indian Removal

• A law that mandated the relocation of Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River.

• The Cherokee Nation in Georgia was forced to relocate, despite the Supreme Court's ruling in Worcester v. Georgia That Georgia had no right to impose state laws on Cherokee lands.

• The Trail of Tears was the route taken by the Cherokees during their forced removal, marked by great suffering and death.

• Some Cherokees resisted removal or hid, eventually settling on a reservation in western North Carolina and becoming citizens of the United States.

4.9 American Culture

Shift from Enlightenment to Romanticism

• In this period, American culture transitioned from the rational, cold, and angular Enlightenment thinking to the warm, emotional, and desirable Romanticism.

• Romanticism, as a way of thinking, trades the cold, angular rationality of Enlightenment thought for the warmth of emotion and desire.

Literature

American literature was heavily influenced by British writer Sir Walter Scott's novels, which epitomized the Romantic movement. However, by the 1820s, American authors began to develop a distinctly American sensibility.

• James Fenimore Cooper: Wrote Last of the Mohicans, which romanticized the American West.

• Washington Irving: Wrote Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, which recast America's landscape and people into a world of fantasy.

• Noah Webster: Published the American Dictionary of the English Language in 1828, standardizing spelling and pronunciation of American English.

Art

• The Hudson River School was a group of artists who used their canvases to portray dramatic renditions of American landscapes.

• Their painters channeled the Romanticism of the age, they often emphasized sentiment and emotion at the expense of accuracy.

Philosophy

• Transcendentalism was a unique American philosophy that arose during this time, emphasizing the transcendent power and beauty of nature and the belief in human perfectibility.

• Ralph Waldo Emerson focused on individualism and self-reliance

• Henry David Thoreau focused on simple living and wrote Walden

Utopian Communities

• During this time, there was a movement for people to move away from society and create their own utopian communities.

• Shakers: A Christian group who established their community in Kentucky, holding property in common and rejecting conjugal union.

• Oneida Community: Dedicated to perfect equality, socially and in terms of property, which eventually extended to marriage and parenting.

4.10 The Second Great Awakening

Causes of the Second Great Awakening

• Market Revolution

  • The messages of the Second Great Awakening and the Market Revolution weren't all that different.

  • In the Market Revolution, individuals learned that economic success or failure was largely in their own hands. If you worked hard and dedicated yourself to improvement, then you would be successful.

  • The same kind of message was preached to devotees of the Second Great Awakening, but in spiritual terms.

• Preachers of this Great Awakening told sinners that salvation was in their hands. Reform your life, do justice, control your impulses, and you would receive everlasting bliss.

• The Second Great Awakening was largely a movement that caught up the lower classes in its fire.

  • The camp meetings themselves were largely egalitarian, including whites, blacks, enslaved and free, men and women as equal members of the movement.

• Rejection of Rationalism in Favor of Romanticism: The Second Great Awakening championed emotional reality over rational reality.

• Charles Finney was an important preacher

Key Features of the Second Great Awakening

• Emphasized righteous living, strong morals, and person restraint

• Focused more on personal emotions and your relationship with God

• Used plain language so everyone could understand

• Encouraged moral reforms

4.11 Religious Reform Movements 🕊

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)

• The Mormons were founded by Joseph Smith in the 1840s.

• According to Smith, he received revelations from God, which led him to translate the Book of Mormon from gold plates.

• The book claimed that the Church of Jesus Christ had strayed from its true teachings, and Smith was God's appointed prophet to restore the church to its true form.

• However, the Mormons faced trouble when Smith received subsequent visions commanding polygamy, which led to his arrest and lynching in Illinois.

• The next prophet, Brigham Young, led the Mormons to migrate to the Utah territory, where they hoped to avoid further anti-Mormon sentiment.

Temperance Movement 🍸

• The temperance movement aimed to reduce the consumption of alcoholic beverages.

• The movement was induced by the Second Great Awakening And was led by the American Temperance Society, founded in 1826.

• The society directed its efforts towards working-class men, who consumed more alcohol than any other group.

• The movement gained supporters in the government, who claimed that temperance could increase productivity and reduce crime.

• However, Irish and German immigrants rejected the movement.

Abolitionist Movement

• The abolitionist movement aimed to end slavery.

• The movement was influenced by the Second Great Awakening, which convinced many people that slavery was a sinful institution.

• One of the main voices of the movement was William Lloyd Garrison, who published the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator.

  • Garrison argued that white people needed to take a stand against slavery through moral persuasion, not violence. He also established the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833.

• Another prominent figure in the movement was Frederick Douglass, an escaped slave who taught himself to read and write.

  • Douglass published his book Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, which emphasized the dehumanization of both the enslaved person and the slave holder.

Women's Rights Movement

• The women's rights movement, which emerged in the 1840s, grew alongside the abolitionist movement.

• Many women who were members of the American Anti-Slavery Society found that their status as women made it difficult to advocate for abolition.

• The Seneca Falls Convention in 1848

  • Led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott addressed women's rights in American society.

  • The convention drafted the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions, which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence.

4.11 Lives and Resistance of African Americans

Cultural Identity and Resistance

• Despite the dehumanization of slavery, enslaved people carved out a social identity and a rich culture that belonged to them.

• Enslaved people claimed their African names, sustaining the memory of their culture and communal heritage.

• They maintained their West African and Caribbean languages when among themselves.

• They kept alive their folk tales, music, and dance, which were distinct from their slave owners.

• They developed their own and syncretized versions of religion, combining African and American elements.

Slave Rebellions

• Slave rebellions were among the greatest fears of the slave-holding elite.

• Haitian Revolution

  • Led by Loussait Louveture

  • Was one of the few successful slave revolts

• Nat Turner's Rebellion:

  • Turner and his followers killed 57 white people, and the rebellion was eventually crushed by the Virginia militia.

  • As a result, Virginia planters panicked and unleashed terror on an estimated 200 enslaved workers, beating and killing many.

• Amistad Mutiny:

  • The enslaved Africans on the ship killed the cook and captain, and later won their freedom in the Supreme Court case United States v. The Amistad.

Consequences of Resistance

• As a result of these rebellions white slave owners became more strict

• Between 1820 and 1840, most Southern legislatures made it illegal to free a slave.

• It was deemed a crime to teach an enslaved person to read and write.

• Strictures like outlawing marriage between enslaved people and abolishing access to the courts were also handed down.