1- gender and culture in psychology (universality and bias)

Gender bias

The tendency to treat one gender differently or unfairly in research or theory

Alpha bias

Theories that exaggerate differences between males and females

Beta bias

Theories that minimise or ignore differences between males and females

Androcentrism

Male-centred viewpoint where male behaviour is seen as the norm

Universality

The assumption that findings apply to all people regardless of gender or culture

Cultural bias

When research reflects the values and norms of one culture only

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture

Emic approach

Studying behaviour from within a culture

Etic approach

Studying behaviour from outside a culture, often comparing cultures

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture

Cultural relativism

Judging behaviour in the context of the culture in which it occurs