sociology - changing families

how have families changed in the last 40-50 years (4 examples)

• no. of traditional nuclear families reduced

• more couples cohabitating

• more step families

• women are having fewer children, and later on in life

what are the 6 reasons for changing families

1. secularisation → changes morals

2. legislation → rights for divorce, same sex relationships etc. increased

3. position of women/influence of feminism → earnings, education

4. changing attitudes and values → divorce + having children outside of marriage

5. economic factors → children + weddings are very expensive

6. rising expectations of marriage/relationships

what is one of the most drastic changes in UK families in the last century

the dramatic increase in divorce

what is the definition of divorce rate

no. of divorces per 1000 married people per year

when did divorces peak in the last century (2 key points)

• 1960s → Divorce Reform Act was passed in 1969, making divorce easier, cheaper and more equal for men and women

• 2020 → Divorce, Dissolution and Separation Act passed in 2020, meaning people no longer have to give an ‘excuse’ to get divorced, meaning its more collaborative and less stressful

how many divorces were there in 1969

roughly 85,000 (compared to 25,000 in 1960)

how many divorces were there in 2023

102,678

what do you need to be careful about with divorce statistics

only show legal termination of marriage → don’t show:

• how many people are informally seperated but not divorced

• empty shell marriages

• how many unhappy marriages existed before necessary legislation existed

what is an empty shell marriage

couples who want to split up but are deterred by their roles as parents

what may divorce rates be reminiscent of

legal changes → may not represent increase in marital instability

factors which lead to increasing divorce rate (5)

• legislation

• declining stigma/changing attitudes/secularisation

• rising expectations of marriage

• women’s equality

• modernisation/individualisation

legislations impact on increasing divorce

as no. of new laws increases, more and more divorces occur (1969 law, 2020 ‘no blame’ law)

declining stigma/changing attitudes/secularisations impact on increasing divorce (3)

• Juliet Mitchell argues declining stigma means couples are more likely to resort to divorce

• now, divorce is beginning to be ‘normalised’

• as religious institutions lose their influence on society, traditional opinions on marriage hold less weight, and couples are less likely to be influenced by religion when making decisions about divorce t

what is secularisation

the decline of influence of religion on society

what is stigma

the negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship

rising expectations of marriage’s impact on increasing divorce (4)

• argued by functionalist Ronald Fletcher (1966) - rising expectations are major cause of divorce today

• today, marriage is seen as a relationship where individuals seek personal fulfilment and romantic love - if love dies, there is no longer justification to be married

• people want to find their ‘Mr or Mrs Right’ - their personal soulmate

• in the past, people often had little choice in who they married, so had lower expectations and likely to remain unsatisfied

what optimistic view do functionalists hold despite this (e.g. Ronald Fletcher)

marriage remains a popular institution, so whilst they are separating, remarriage is growing, as they look for their ‘soulmate’

criticisms of this (2)

• feminists → too rosy a view, oppression of women is the main reason for divorce and conflict. functionalists fail to explain why it is mainly women who seek divorces

• marriage rates have fallen significantly in the past 50 years

women’s equality’s impact on increasing divorce (2)

• improving economic positions of women mean they no longer must rely on husband financially → e.g. 67% of women are now in paid work (2013), compared to 53% in 1971, more girls have greater success in education to achieve professional careers

• feminists argue married women today carry a ‘dual burden’ of work and domestic house care → created a new source of conflict, leading to increased divorce rates

how do feminists argue marriage remains patriarchal

men benefit from their wives ‘triple shift’ of paid work, domestic work and emotional work

what does Arlie Hochschild (1997) argue

at work, women feel valued, whereas at home, men’s continuing resistance to completing housework is a source of frustration for women, making the marriage less stable

what does radical feminist Jessie Bernard (1976) argue

women’s increasing demand for divorce signals how women are becoming conscious of patriarchal oppression and more confident in rejecting it

modernity/individualisation impact on increasing divorce (3)

• Beck and Giddens (1992) argue the Individualisation Thesis’ role in making relationships more fragile and increasing divorce → more interested in pursuing their own self interest

• Giddens (1992) argues more people seek the ‘pure relationship’ instead of sticking to unhappy marriages

• modern society encourages individualism → women are now expecyed to pursue their own individual career ambitions, not just men, which could cause conflict of interest between spouses

what is Beck and Gidden’s Individualisation Thesis

the concept that in modern society, traditional norms have lost their hold over individuals, leaving them to pursue their own self-interests

what is Gidden’s ‘pure relationship’

a relationship which exists purely to satisfy each member’s needs and not a sense of duty, tradition or the sake of children

looking at marriages of any durations, how many end in divorce

1/3

evaluate the reasons for changes in divorce rate since 1969 (20 marker)

Intro → set debate (legal vs social), key concepts, major trends in divorce rate since 1969

P1 → Changes in law

P2 → changing attitudes + secularisation

P3 → rising expectations of marriage

P4 → rise in women’s equality

P5 → modernisation of society

Conc → which reason has the greatest impact? (changing attitudes and secularisation) and why

what should you do in a 20 marker like this

try and evaluate each point you make (undermine it, with a sociologist/theory group and what they might say in return)

outline and explain two ways in which social changes may affect patterns of divorce (10 marks)

P1 → changing attitudes of women: link back to question at end

P2 → movement into a postmodern society: link back to question at end

key phrases which apply to this essay (3)

• increase in women taking on paid work means they are no longer financially dependent on men and can support themselves following divorce

• changes in social attitudes have normalised divorce and increased social acceptability

• increase in individuals seeking a pure relationship (postmodern concept) has led to patterns of serial monogamy and higher rates of divorce

how many marriages were there in 2022

246,897

how much of an increase is that compared to 2019

12.3% more

however, what might this be due to

COVID-19 restrictions, may not be reminiscent of long term trends

how many same sex marriages were there in 2022

7,800 (record number)

how many couples were cohabitating prior to getting married in 2021/2022

more than 9 in 10 couples

what 6 factors are responsible for declining marriage and growth of cohabitation

1. changing role of women

2. reduced functions of family

3. changing social attitudes and reduced stigma

4. growing secularisation

5. rising divorce rate

6. reducing risk

role of changing role of women in changing patterns of marriage (2)

• women more successful in school and work, growing economic freedom creates more freedom

• women’s expectations of life and marriage have risen, less likely to take on housework roles

why is cohabitation more convenient now for women

more economic freedom means its not a financial necessity for women. also can avoid legal implications of divorce

role of reduced functions of family in changing patterns of marriage (1)

family functions transferred to or shared with other institutions → marriage less important

role of changing social attitudes/reduced stigma in changing patterns of marriage (3)

• younger people more likely to cohabit than older people → may reflect how older generations believe living together before marriage is wrong

• younger generation is more easygoing

• reduced stigma, linked to secularisation

role of growing secularisation in changing patterns of marriage (2)

• influence of condemnation of divorce and cohabitation decreased

• marriage + cohabitation now about individuals and their personal + practical choices, not religion

how many people’s marriages involve religious ceremonies today (in england and wales)

17%

role of rising divorce rate in changing patterns of marriage (2)

• more couples deterred by increasing divorce rate

• high no.’s of second marriages is due to increased no. of divorces or seperations

role of reducing risk in changing patterns of marriage (3)

• Beck (1992) suggests we live in a ‘risk society’ where individuals are less controlled by traditional structures and institutions

• less loyalty and commitment demanded by social norms of marriage and family life

• people want to avoid risks involved with long-term commitments like marriage

what is an LAT

living apart together → couples in long term, committed relationship who live separately (in short or long distance)

outline 3 reasons for the growth of LATs

• changes in the labour market mean its difficult for couples to find or retain existing jobs or income in same areas

• modern technology means close contact can be maintained between ‘apartners’

• changes in social norms which reduce stigma around how traditional relationships function

how many people are in LAT’s according to Harley (2005)

1 in 10 adults in the UK

what are 3 reasons why people actively choose LATs rather then marriage or cohabitation

• for career development or education prospects

• personal preference → some people prefer their own space and seperate responsibilities (e.g. kids)

• may want to minimise losses and conflict → if they don’t have the same stakes as previous marriages, may be less likely to break down

how many lone parent families were there in 2024

3.2 million

how much did this change in comparison to 2014

increased by 3 million

how many single parents are employed

66% → impact on material deprivation

how many children in single parent families are in poverty compared to couple families

single parent → 43%

couple families → 26%

factors which have led to increasing lone parent families (4)

• changing position of women

• changing attitudes to relationships

• less stigma attached to lone parenting

• state support for parents

how does the changing position of women lead to increasing LATs (3)

• women are increasingly financially independent and career focused

• women less likely to tolerate unhappy relationships, unlike previous generations

• petitioning for divorce is completed by women 2/3 of the time → represents their greater freedom and unwillingness to remain in unhappy marriages

how does changing attitudes to relationships lead to increasing LATs (4)

• expectations for relationships have changed for both men and women

• Giddens → ‘confluent love’ (no longer fixed)

• Bauman → ‘liquid love’, more freedom, greater choice

• greater focus on individualism (without a partner) means less families stay together

how does less stigma attached to lone parents lead to increasing LATs (3)

• as divorce becomes more normalised, more people choose to raise children alone → changing nature of relationships

• rise of feminism sees divorce as a form of empowerment to women → lone parents celebrated

• celebrity lifestyle → high profile lone parents shown in media

how does state support for parents lead to increasing LATs (3)

• New Right critical of welfare dependency and have cut support for lone parents

• however, initiatives like the Working Tax Credit and funding for 30 hours of free childcare have supported lone parents into work

• creation of Child Support Agency had mixed impact on lone parent support → now called Child Maintenance Service (CMS)

what is the impact of increasing lone parent families on society (4)

• increase in reconstituted families and lone parent households

• increase in female role models for girls

• growth of co-parenting

• potential for conflict over access, new relationships and financial agreements

what do the new right support

traditional values and institutions. they support the nuclear family and instrumental and expressive gender roles

what do they think about family diversity

it threatens social stability, and points to rising anti-social behaviour and lack of discipline in school and family life

what does Murray and Marsland argue

the welfare state has undermined personal responsibility and self-help → particularly dislike welfare for lone-parent families, as they believe it encourages single women to have children they couldn’t otherwise afford

what do they think the decline of the traditional family has led to

the emergence of a dependency culture and a work-shy underclass (who want to avoid work by living off state benefits)

what is a perverse incentive

benefits which reward people for ‘wrong’ behaviour, e.g. children outside of marriage

what is a promiscuous parasite

term given to the mothers who survive by living off benefits from the welfare state, having children with multiple partners

what do the new right call for

a return to traditional family values, seeking government policies which reverse the decline of the nuclear family unit

criticism of new right perspective

rosy perspective → ignores the darker sides of the family, romanticised idea

what 4 patterns are part of changing family patterns

1. remarriage and reconstituted families

2. same sex relationships

3. changes in child bearing

4. single-hood/one parent households

remarriage and reconstituted families (4)

• fastest growing type of household

• overall, only 1% of households

• around a 1/3 of marriages now include one of the people in the couple having their second marriage

• coparenting emerging as an alternative approach

how many reconstituted families have formed between 2003 and 3024

increased by 39%

what does Allan argue about step families

life is complex in them, sense of unity is not present unlike in ‘natural families’ → eg roles are less clear, stepparents may have less authority to non biological children, children may refuse to listen, creates conflict

same sex relationships (3)

• increased social acceptance of same sex relationships

• ‘chosen families’ where gay people create families through friendships

• social policy treats all couples more equally → e.g 2004 Civil Partnerships Act gives same sex couples similar legal rights

when did same sex marriage become legal

2014

what does Jeffrey Weeks argue (1999)

increased social acceptance may explain trend towards same-sex cohabitation

changes in child bearing (3)

• families get smaller over the years, women have fewer children, wait longer to give birth

• explanations: changing role of women, rising cost of children, greater social acceptance of remaining childless, birth outside of marriage

• average age for women to have children has risen to 28.1 years

what did Hirsch estimate the cost of 1 child by the age of 18

£154,000

how many births were outside of marriage in 2013 (in england and wales)

47% → despite 9/10 of those registered with parents cohabiting

singlehood/one person households (5)

• 29% of households in 2013 were single person

• many reasons: divorce, death of partner, choice, separation

• fastest growing household in the uk

• less social stigma, compared to ‘left on the shelf’ traditional perspective

• elderly people may outlive their spouse

what percentage of single person households are 65+ years old

40%

what did the Rapoports argue

diversity has changed family life in the UK, adapting to a pluralistic society (society with diverse cultures and lifestyles) → 5 types of diversity

what does this diversity represent

greater freedom of choice + peoples needs and wishes

what are the 5 types of diversity they argue exist

• cultural diversity

• organisational diversity

• social class diversity

• generational diversity

• life-stage diversity

what is cultural diversity

how different cultural, religious and ethnic groups have different family structures

what is organisational diversity

differences in the way family roles are organised → e.g. 2 wage earners, or segregated conjugal roles and one wage earner

what is social class diversity

differences in family structure which are the result of income differences between households (of different class)

what is generational diversity

older and younger generations have different attitudes and experiences that reflect the historical period they live in → e.g. about the morality of divorce and cohabitation

what is life stage diversity

family structures differ according to the stage reached in the lifecycle → newlyweds, couples with children, retired couples, widows

what does robert chester recognise ********* (very very important to learn)

there has been increased family diversity in recent years. however, the only important change is a move from the dominance of the traditional nuclear family to what he calls the ‘neo-conventional family’

what is the neo conventional family

a dual earner family where both parents go out to work

what does he describe as the conventional family

the family where division of labour creates a male breadwinner and female homemaker

other then this, what does chester argue

there is no other major changes →

• he argues most people are not choosing to live in alternatives to the nuclear family in the long term

• nuclear family remains the ideal which most people aspire.

what does he suggest the reason for people not being in a nuclear family at any one time

the life cycle → they will be in a nuclear family in the future, or have been in the past

what does this suggest about statistics on household compostion

they are a ‘misleading snapshot’ and don’t show us the fact that most people will spend a major part of their lives in a nuclear family

what patterns does he identify consequently (3)

• most people live in a household headed by a married couple

• most adults still marry and have children

• most marriages continue till death (divorce has increased, but divorcees remarry)

as a result, what does he argue about family diversity

the extent of it has been exaggerated, as the nuclear family is still dominant (but he does say there has been a shift from conventional to neo-conventional families)

what is the ‘cereal packet family’

the stereotype often promoted in advertisements and media (e.g. cereal, toothpaste)

what is argued about it

it is the best, most desirable and most common form of family and household (New right and functionalists agree)