Module 2

learning

relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience

classical conditioning

learning to associate a neutral stimulus in our environment with a different, meaningful stimulus

operant conditioning

consequences of our behavior determine the likelihood that the behavior will occur again

consequence

what follows behavior (reinforcement or punishment)

nonassociative learning

learning which occurs after exposure to a single stimulus and does not reflect associations among stimuli

observational learning

learning that occurs as a result of watching an organism

Applied Behavior Analysis

applies the princples of operant conditioning to treating a variety of behavioral issues

signal

anything that provides information that predicts what will happen next

temporal contiguity

when things are closely linked together in time

acquisition

when an organism first learns the association between a stimulus and a response

unconditioned stimulus (US)

event (stimulus) that is reliably elicits a response (the UR) without any prior learning

unconditioned response (UR)

response (usually a physiological one) that is reliably elicited by the US

neutral stimulus

a signal that does not produce any automatic response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus, that, after being paired with the US, elicits the CR

conditioned response (CR)

learned response to a previously neutral, now conditioned stimulus (CS)

delay conditioning

the conditioned stimulus (CS) should start just before (~0.5 sec) and overlap a bit with the unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus generalization

things that are similar to the conditioned stimulus also produce the CR

stimulus extinction

the breaking of the association between the US and the CS, leading to the diminishing of the CR

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of the CR which had been diminished after a rest period (extinction)

conditioned taste aversion

special case of classical conditioning where ingesting a food and sickness are associated

Law of Effect

behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences are likely to be repeated; behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are not likely to be repeated

reinforcement

an event that increases the probability that the behavior it follows will be repeated

positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant event, strengthens the behavior that precedes it

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant event, strengthens the behavior that precedes it

escape learning

type of negative reinforcement, unpleasant event that is already occurring is escaped, resulting in increased likelihood that escaping will be repeated

avoidance learning

type of negative reinforcement, unpleasant event that might or will occur in the future is avoided, resulting in increased likelihood that avoiding will be repeated

punishment

an event that decreases the probability that the behavior it follows will be repeated

punishment by application

presentation of an unpleasant event, weakens the behavior that precedes it

punishment by removal

removal of a pleasant event, weakens the behavior that precedes it

shaping

positively reinforcing small changes in behavior on the way to the desired goal behavior

acquisition

initial stage of learning the pairing of a behavior with its consequence

extinction

the breaking of the association between a behavior and its consequences, leading to the diminishing of the behavior

schedules of reinforcement

pattern rules for the delivery of reinforcement

continuous

schedule of reinforcement where behaviors are reinforced every time they occur

partial

reinforcement schedule when reinforcement is not given every time a behavior is performed

fixed ratio

schedule of reinforcement where behaviors are reinforced after a set number of behaviors

variable ratio

schedule of reinforcement where behaviors are reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors

fixed interval

schedule of reinforcement where behaviors are reinforced after a set amount of time

variable interval

schedule of reinforcement where behaviors are reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time

learned helplessness

organisms become conditioned to believe that they do not have control over unpleasant situations and cannot escape them

habituation

a form of nonassociative learning, where repeated exposure to a single stimulus results in a diminished response to that stimulus

sensitization

a form of nonassociative learning, where responsiveness to a single stimulus increases

modeling

learning process based on behavioral observation, imitating someone else's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

reinforcement that is experienced by someone you are observing has a reinforcing effect on you

vicarious punishment

punishment that is experienced by someone you are observing has a punishing effect on you

autism spectrum disorder

a range of neurodevelopmental disorders that affect communication and social interaction

antecedents

stimuli that serves as a cue and occur right before a behavior

behaviors

an observable action emitted by an organism

consequences

a reinforcement or punishment that occurs after a behavior

positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant event, strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

positively reinforcing small changes in behavior on the way to the desired goal behavior

generalization

performing the same behavior in different environments

Sensory Registers

Receive sensory information from the external world and are basically unlimited in their capacity

Sensory Registers

The entry point for raw information from the senses are the ____.

Sensory Registers

Our visual sensation of a passing automobile would be initially store in the ____.

Sensory Registers

Our auditory sensation of someone's voice would be initially stored in the ____.

Auditory and Visual

Which sensory registers have been studied more extensively than others?

vast, very short

The sensory registers have a _____ capacity and hold information for a ________time.

Icon

A visual image held in the sensory register is an______.

Sensory Registers

The icon and the echo refer to images in the_________.

9

In Sperling's experiments, people were able to remember about _________ of the 12 letters presented to them if he had them recall the letters immediately after presenting them.

4-5

In Sperling's experiments, people were able to remember about _________ of the 12 letters presented to them if he waited a full second between presenting the letters and asking people to recall them.

less than 1 second

Visual information is generally erased from the sensory registers in _______.

replaced by new information

Visual information in the sensory registers is gone when it is _________.

Auditory Information

_________ fades more slowly than visual information.

Echo

The auditory equivalent of the icon is the ______.

Attention

The process of selectively looking, listening, smelling, tasting, and feeling is called ________.

Sensory Registers

Information disappears most quickly from the________.

Broadbent

The person who first proposed a filtering process at the entrance to the nervous system was _________.

Broadbent

Who proposed that the way we pay attention to information that in some ways stands out because of its physical properties, while we filter out other information completely?

Broadbent's Filter Theory

Sitting in a very noisy restaurant, you are able to screen out all the other conversations around you so you can listen to the friend with whom you are conversing

Cocktail Party Phenomenon

Someone a short distance away, to whom you have been paying no attention, quietly speaks your name, and suddenly you are attending to that conversation

Meaningfulness

According to the modified filter theory, information will draw our attention if it stands out because of its _______.

Treisman

The owner of a black Labrador can hear her dog when it barks in the night, although she sleeps through the sounds of other loud barking dogs.

Working Memory

Synonymous with short-term memory

Short-Term Memory

What we are thinking of at any given moment, or what we commonly know as "consciousness," is_________.

Short-Term Memory

When you listen to a conversation or a song on the radio, or watch a tv show, you are using _______ to hold onto and think about new information coming in from the sensory registers.

2

Short-term memory has ____ primary tasks

1.5-2

It is now believed that short-term memory can hold as much information as can be repeated or rehearsed in_________ seconds.

Chunking

________ is a means of organizing information in short-term memory.

Chunking

_________is most useful for storing information in short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

Usually has to perform more than one task at a time.

Short-Term Memory

When we are pricing items in a grocery store, and we attempt to remember the prices of there different brands of 7-ounce cans of tuna fish by repeating them again and again, the information is being held in ___________.

Phonologically

We encode verbal information in short-term memory _____.

sound alike

The words "boat" and "goat" are most likely to become confused in short-term memory because they _______.

Phonological Code

The cashier at McDonalds says "That will be $3.17 please." What kind of code would most people use to remember "$3.17" while they are reaching for their memory?

Phonologically, visually

Images are stored in short-term memory ________ and ________.

Short-term memory visually

Rotation an M until it is recognized as a W is evidence that we can process information in______.

better

Research has shown that in short-term memory, memory for images is generally _____ than memory for words.

Phonologically, phonologically

In short-term memory, we usually store memories for images as images and _______, and we usually store memory for words only____.

few seconds

Material stored in short-term memory remains there for about a_________ and then fades unless rehearsed or practiced.

Rote Rehearsal

If you want to remember something for a couple of minutes, the MOST effective device is ______.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Rote rehearsal is also called _______.

few, seconds

Short-term memory can hold only a ______ items for a matter of _______.

Long-Term Memory

The portion of memory that is more or less permanent and that corresponds with everything we "know" is call _________.

Long-Term Memory

which memory system can hold the most information?

75

In one study, adults who had graduated from high school more than 40 years earlier were able to recognize about _______% of their classmates.

Long-Term Memory

The concept of a house would be stored in______.

meaning

Most information in long-term memory is coded by ____________.

meaning

When remembering verbal messages, we usually remember __________ of the message but not the exact words.