Congress & American Political Institutions – Key Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards summarize key constitutional provisions, landmark cases, legislative theories, and political science concepts relevant to Congress and U.S. governance.

Article I

The constitutional article that grants legislative powers to Congress and establishes the House and Senate structure, qualifications, and procedures such as impeachment.

Enumerated Powers

Specific powers listed in the Constitution for Congress, including taxation, commerce regulation, declaring war, and coining money.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Constitutional clause allowing Congress to pass laws deemed essential to carry out its enumerated powers, basis for implied powers.

Implied Powers

Authorities not explicitly listed in the Constitution but considered necessary to implement enumerated powers, affirmed in McCulloch v. Maryland.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Supreme Court case that upheld federal implied powers through the Necessary and Proper Clause and denied states the power to tax federal entities.

Boerne v. Flores (1997)

Decision that limited Congress’s enforcement power under the 14th Amendment, striking down part of the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.

Congressional Rules

Formal procedures adopted by each chamber governing debate, amendments, and behavior, such as committee assignments and floor time limits.

Hastert Rule

Informal House norm that the Speaker will not allow a vote unless a majority of the majority party supports the bill.

Blue Slip

Senate tradition allowing home-state senators to approve or block federal judicial nominees from their state.

State Redistricting Authority

Power of state legislatures or commissions to draw congressional district lines, subject to federal constraints like the Voting Rights Act.

Great Compromise

Constitutional agreement giving equal representation to states in the Senate and population-based representation in the House.

Separation of Powers

Distribution of governmental authority across legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

Regular Order

Standard legislative process where bills go through committee hearings, mark-ups, and open floor debate with amendments.

Irregular Order

Legislative shortcuts that bypass committees or restrict debate, such as using budget reconciliation or leadership-crafted omnibus bills.

Committee System

Division of congressional labor into specialized panels that draft, revise, and gatekeep legislation while allowing member expertise.

Conditional Party Government (CPG)

Theory that majority parties centralize power in leadership when internally unified and decentralize when ideologically diverse.

Diffuse Interests

Public policy effects spread thinly across many citizens, making collective action and lobbying less intense (e.g., general taxpayers).

Concentrated Interests

Policy benefits or costs focused on a small, motivated group, encouraging intense lobbying (e.g., specific industry subsidies).

Pitkin’s Procedural Representation

View that fair mechanisms—like free elections—are the essence of representation, regardless of policy outcomes.

Pitkin’s Substantive Representation

Concept that representatives act in accordance with constituents’ interests and policy preferences.

Descriptive Representation

When elected officials physically resemble the demographics (race, gender, etc.) of their constituents.

Symbolic Representation

Emotional or cultural connection constituents feel toward a representative, independent of policy actions.

Trustee Model

Legislative approach where representatives use their own judgment to make decisions they believe serve constituents’ long-term interests.

Delegate Model

Approach where representatives follow the expressed preferences of their constituents when voting.

Majority-Minority District

Electoral district in which a racial or ethnic minority constitutes a majority of voters, intended to prevent vote dilution under the Voting Rights Act.

Thornburg v. Gingles Test

Supreme Court criteria for creating majority-minority districts: minority cohesion, geographical compactness, and evidence of bloc voting against the minority.

State Election Administration

Responsibility of state governments to run federal elections, including voter registration, ballots, and polling logistics.

Duverger’s Law

Political science principle that single-member, plurality elections tend to produce a two-party system.

Ranked-Choice Voting

Electoral system allowing voters to rank candidates, encouraging coalition-building and reducing negative campaigning.

Incumbency Advantage

Electoral edge enjoyed by current officeholders due to name recognition, resources, and credit-claiming opportunities.

Mayhew’s Advertising

Congressional behavior aimed at increasing name recognition without issue content, such as sending newsletters or attending events.

Mayhew’s Credit Claiming

Behavior where legislators take responsibility for desirable policy outcomes or benefits delivered to constituents.

Mayhew’s Position Taking

Public statements on political issues intended to please constituents or interest groups without necessarily producing policy change.

Lobbyist Expertise

Information, technical drafting help, and constituent data provided by lobbyists to supportive lawmakers to shape legislation.

Term Limits and Lobbying

Policy that can amplify lobbyists’ influence by forcing inexperienced legislators to rely more on external knowledge and relationships.

Youngstown v. Sawyer (1952)

Case that limited presidential power by ruling the President needs constitutional or statutory authority to seize private property.

INS v. Chadha (1983)

Decision declaring the legislative veto unconstitutional, reinforcing separation of powers between Congress and the executive.

High Crimes and Misdemeanors

Constitutionally specified grounds for impeachment, interpreted by Congress as serious abuses of office or trust rather than ordinary crimes.

Chevron Deference

Doctrine requiring courts to defer to reasonable agency interpretations of ambiguous statutes, recently curtailed.

Loper Bright v. Raimondo (2024)

Supreme Court case that ended Chevron deference, empowering courts to interpret ambiguous statutes themselves.

Political Question Doctrine

Judicial principle of refusing to decide issues constitutionally committed to other branches, such as impeachment standards or war powers.