Earth Science

EARTH SCIENCE

is the name for all the sciences that coollectively seek to undestand Earth and its neighbors in space.

Geology

Study of Earth's physical structure, materials, and processes shaping it.

Oceanography

Exploration of oceans, including marine ecosystems, currents, and the ocean's effect on climate.

Meteorology

Science of the atmosphere, focusing on weather patterns and forecasting.

Astronomy

Study of space and celestial bodies' influence on Earth.

Environment

All natural surroundings, including air, water, soil, and rock.

Renewable Resources

Natural resources that can be replenished over time, like water, plants, and wind energy.

Nonrenewable Resources

Finite resources, such as minerals and fossil fuels, that take millions of years to form.

Environmental Issues

Challenges such as pollution, climate change, and natural disasters that affect ecosystems and human life.

Hypothesis

An initial explanation or guess that hasn’t been fully tested.

Theory

A hypothesis that has been tested and supported by evidence.

Paradigm

A well-established theory that explains a wide range of related facts or phenomena.

Scientific Method

Steps used to explore questions about the natural world, involving observation, experimentation, and analysis.

Nebular Hypothesis

Theory that the solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust.

Hydrosphere

• refers to the bodies of water consisting of freely flowing bodies of water found on the surface of the Earth, as well as water reservoirs stored below the ground as groundwater.

• nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface. 

Atmosphere

a collective layer of gas that envelopes the Earth

Biosphere

Refers to the narrow band on the Earth’s surface where all biological life resides.

Solid Earth

The structural composition of Earth, divided into the crust, mantle, and core.

Closed System

A system that doesn’t exchange matter with its surroundings, though energy can still enter or leave (like a car’s cooling system).

Open System

A system where both energy and matter can enter and exit, such as a river.

Geosphere

is the largest out of all the spheres, extending from the surface of the Earth down to its center. It comprises external processes that we can observe on the surface and internal processes deep within.

Crust

This is the thinnest and outermost layer of the Earth.

continental crust

is the older and more buoyant type of crust

oceanic crust

is the younger and denser type of crust.

Mohorovičić discontinuity

The boundary between the crust and mantle

mantle

comprises most of the Earth’s volume (more than 80%) and begins where the crust ends, down to a depth of 2,900 km.

Core

The innermost part of Earth.

Lithosphere

is a thick and brittle layer comprising the entire crust and uppermost layer of the upper mantle.

Asthenosphere

is a mechanically weak layer consisting of the lower portion of the upper mantle, extending to 660 km.

Mesosphere

(from the Greek word mesos meaning “middle”), comprised of the lower mantle, reaching the 2,900 km depth.

peridodite

The upper mantle comprises an Mg- and Fe-rich rock called _____

Outer Core

is the only one made out of liquid–melted Fe-Ni alloy, to be exact.

The flow of liquid metals is responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field.

Inner Core

Despite the extreme temperature, the overwhelming pressure in this layer forces the _______ to be a solid ball of mostly Fe.

perovskite

the dominant rock type located in the mesosphere

Rocks

are naturally-occurring aggregates of minerals and mineraloids

Igneous Rocks

are formed when molten material cools and solidifies.

intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks

When igneous rocks form below the surface of the Earth.

extrusive igneous or volcanic rocks.

When igneous rocks form on the surface of the earth they are called?

obsidian

(formed when lava rapidly cools; also known as volcanic glass)

Sedimentary rocks

are formed from loose material called sediments that have been eroded in weathering and then buried and compacted in a process called diagenesis

Clastic sedimentary rocks

are classified based on the characteristics of their clasts, such as size, angularity/roundedness, and sorting.

Sediments

Sedimentary rocks are formed from loose material called _______.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Sediments come from pre-existing rocks.

Chemical sedimentary rocks

are formed when water evaporates, leaving behind dissolved minerals.

organic sedimentary rocks

is composed of the remains of living things (shells, bones, plant fragments, etc.)

Metamorphic Rock

rocks that have been changed from their original form due to high heat, pressure, or hot mineral-rich fluids

protolith

The original rock or “parent rock” that was altered is called a ______

Foliation

The first type is characterized by the appearance of a planar arrangement of mineral grains called ________

Nonfoliated rocks

usually develop in environments where deformation is minimal and other factors, such as chemically-active fluids, play a larger part in altering the rock.

Orderly crystalline structure

 Atoms in a mineral are placed in a repetitive and orderly manner. The inside of a mineral is an example of it.

Color

 It refers to the wavelengths of light reflected by the minerals. The least valuable property of a mineral.

Luster

 It describes how light is reflected from the mineral’s surface

adamantine luster

Brilliantly cut gems are described to have?

Streak

This is the color of the mineral when it is powdered

Hardness

This refers to how resistant a mineral is to scratching

Mohs’ Hardness Scale

 is a tool used to describe a mineral’s hardness relative to other minerals.

Cleavage

refers to the tendency of a mineral to break along preferred planes called zones of weakness.

fracture

is produced if a mineral doesn’t break along zones of weakness.

Tenacity

 This describes how well a mineral handles stress, such as breaking, crushing, bending, or tearing.

brittle 

Minerals susceptible to cracking or breaking are called ____.

elastic

A mineral that deforms under stress but snaps back to its original shape after the pressure is removed is called _____.

flexible

On the other hand, if a mineral is deformed under stress but doesn’t go back to its original shape, it is then called _____.

malleable

Metallic minerals such as gold, copper, or silver are called ________.  because they can be flattened into sheets

ductile

Copper is also _______ because it can be drawn into thin wires without breaking

Sectile

_____  minerals such as gold or gypsum can be carved into thin sheets with a knife.

Diaphaneity

This refers to how well light travels through a mineral. 

Effervescence

This describes a mineral’s reaction to a strong acid such as HCl (hydrochloric acid). This is due to the chemical reaction between CaCO₃ and HCl in carbonate minerals and rocks