exam 1

anatomy

the study of structure

physiology

the study of function

inspection

viewing

palpation

feeling

ascultation

listening

percussion

tapping

cadaver dissection

cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships

comparative anatomy

study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution

medical imaging

viewing the inside of the body without surgery

radiology

branch of medicine concerned with imaging

radiography (x-rays)

\-dense tissue appears white

\-over half of all medical imaging

radiopaque substance

\-injected or swallowed

\-fills hollow structures (blood vessels & intestinal tract

computed tomography

\-formerly called a CAT scan

\-low-intensity x-rays and computer analysis

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

\-superior quality to CT scan

\-best for soft tissue

\-expensive

positron emission tomography (PET)

\-assesses metabolic state of tissue

\-distinguishes tissues most active at a given moment

\-mechanics: inject radioactively labeled glucose

sonography

\-second oldest & second most widely used

\-high-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs

\-avoids harmful x-rays (no radiation)

gross anatomy

study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

histology

examination of tissues with microscope

cytology

study of structure and function of cells

hierrarchy of complexity

\-organism composed of organs

\-organ system composed of organs

\-organs composed of 2 or more tissues

\-tissues composed of 2 or more types/kinds of cells

\-cells composed of organelles

\-organelles composed of 2 or more molecules

\-molecules composed of 2 or more atoms

anatomical varation

no 2 humans are exactly alike

situs inversus

left-right reversal of organ placement

organization

living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things

cellular composition

living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

metabolism

internal chemical reactions

responsiveness

ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritabbility or excitability)

movement

of organism and/or of substances within the organism

homeostasis

maintaining relatively stable internal conditions

development

differentiation and growth

reproduction

producing copies of themselves; passing genes to offspring

evolution

\-changes in genes from one generation to the next

\-accumulation of mutations

aging

all changes occurring in the body with the passage of time; growth, development, and degenerative changes that occur later in life

senescence

\-the degeneration that occurs in organ systems after the age of peak functional efficiency

\-gradual loss of reserve capacities, reduced ability to repair damage and compensate for stress, and increased susceptibility to disease

\-brain srinks, skin losses elastisticy, bones lose density

\-muscles are only acception

exercise and senescence

\-good nutrition and exercise are best ways to slow senescence

\-exercise improves quality of life by maintaining endurance, strength, and joint mobility

\-reduces incidence and severity of hypertension, osteoporosis, obesity, and diabetes mellitus

\-resistance exercise reduces bone fractures (more density in bones)

\-endurance exercises reduce body fat and increase cardiac output and oxygen uptake

life expectancy

average length of life in a given population

life span

maximum age attainable by humans

negative feedback

\-allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point

\-the response is opposite to the stimulus

receptor

\-structure that senses change in the body (ex: stretch receptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)

\-take info to be processed in brain or spinal cord

integrating (control) center

control center that processes the sensory info, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (ex: cardiac center of the brain)

effector

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeeostasis (ex: the heart)

self-amplifying cycle

\-leads to greater change in the same direction

\-response is the same as the stimulus

\-feedback loop is repeated--change produces more change

\-ex: birth, blood clot formation

gradient

a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between 2 points

movement across concentration gradient

\-matter and energy then to flow down gradients

\-movement in the opposite direction is “up the gradient”

-movement in this direction requires spending metabolic energy

\-high concentration→low concentration

gradients and flow

\-chemicals flow down concentration gradients

\-charged particles flow down electrical gradients

\-heat flows down thermal gradients

element

simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

atom

smallest piece of an element with the chemical and physical properties of the element

atomic number

number of protons in the nucleus

elements with biological role

\-6 elements=98.5% of body weight

\-oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus

minerals

\-inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed up food chain to humans

\-Ca, P, Cl, Mg, K, Na, and S

\-constitute about 4% of body weight

\-important for body structure and enzyme function

electrolytes

\-mineral salts needed for nerve and muscle function

\-substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electricity

ion

charged particle (atom or molecule) with unequal number of protons and electrons

ionization

transfer of electrons from onr atom to another

anion

particle that gains electron(s) (negative ion)

cation

particle that loses electron(s) (positive ion)

electrolyte importance

\-chemical reactivity, osmotic effect electrical excitability of nerve and muscle

\-electrolyte balance is one of the most important considerations in patient care (imbalances can lead to coma or cardiac arrest)

chemical bonds

hold atoms together within a molecule or attract one molecule to another

ionic bonds

\-attractions between anions and cations (ex: NaCl)

\-electrons donated from one atom to another

\-easily broken by water

nonpolar bond

electrons shared equally (strongest bond)

polar bonds

electrons shared unequally (spend more time near oxygen)

hydrogen bonds

\-a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another

\-Water molecules are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonds

\-Large molecules (DNA and proteins) shaped by hydrogen bonds within them

molecule

chemical particle composed of 2 oe more atoms united by a covalent chemical bond

compound

molecule composed of 2 or more different elements

molecular formula

indentifies constituent elements and how many atoms of each are present

mixture

physically blended but not chemically combined

mixtures in the body

\-body fluids are complex mixtures of chemicals

\-most mixtures in our bodies consist of chemicals dissolved or suspended in water

\-water is 50% to 75% of body weight

solvency

ability to dissolve other chemicals

hydrophilic

\-substances that dissolve in water

\-molecules must be polarized or charged

hydrophobic

\-substances that do not dissolve in water

\-molecules are nonpolar or neutral

solution

\-consists of particles called solute mixed with a more abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent

\-can be gas, solid, or liquid

acid

a proton donor (releases H⁺ ions in water)

base

\-a proton acceptor (accepts H⁺ ions)

\-many bases release OH⁻

energy

\-capacity to do work

\-to do work means to move something

\-all body activites are forms of work

kinetic energy

energy of motion

potential energy

energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work

chemical energy

potential energy in molecular bonds

catalyst

\-speed up reactions

\-bind to reactants and hold then in orientations that facilitate the reaction

\-not changed by the reaction and can repeat the process frequently

organic chemistry

the study of compounds containing carbon

4 categories of carbon compounds

1) carbohydrates

2) lipids

3) proteins

4) nucleic acids

macromolecules

very large organic molecules with high molecular weights

polymers

macromolecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers)

polymerization

joining monomers to form a polymer

hydrolysis

\-digestion; the opposite of dehydration synthesis

\-a water molecule ionizes into OH⁻ and H⁺

\-the covalent bond linking one monomer to the other is broken

\-the OH⁻ is added to one monomer

\-the H⁺ is added to the other

dehydration synthesis (condensation)

\-how living cells form polymers

\-a hydroxyl (OH⁻) group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (H⁺) from another

\-producing water as a by-product

\-monomers covalently bind together to form a polymer with the removal of a water molecule

carbohydrates

\-hydrophilic organic molecule

\-primary function=energy source

\-oxidized to make ATP

Three important monosaccharides

glucose, galactose, and fructose

disaccharide

sugar made of 2 monosaccharides

Three important disaccharides

sucrose, lactose, and maltose

polysaccharides

long chains of monosaccharids (at lease 50)

glycogen

energy storage in cells of liver, muscle, brain, uterus, vagina

starch

energy storage in plants is digestible by humans

cellulose

structural molecule in plants that is important for human dietary fiber (but indigestible to us)

lipids

\-hydrophobic organic molecules with a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen

\-high caloric density

3 most significant lipids

triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids

triglycerides (neutral fats)

\-3 fatty acids linked to glycerol

\-each bond formed by dehydration synthesis

\-broken down by hydrolysis

\-liquid form=oils

\-soild form=fat

\-primary function=long term energy storage, insulation, and shock absorption

Trans-fatty acids

\-two single C - C bonds angle in opposite sides of the C = C double bond

\-hard to remove → heart disease

Cis-fatty acids

two single C - C

phospholipids

\-similar to neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group

\-structural foundation of cell membrane

amphipatic

\-fatty acid “tails” are hydrophobic

\-phosphate “head” is hydrophilic

steriod

a lipid with 17 carbon atoms in 4 rings

cholesterol

\-the “parent” steroid from which other steroids are synthesized

\-important for nervous system function and structural integrity of all cell membranes