Unit 1: Exploration and Colonization

Aztec

Mesoamerican civilization from present-day Mexico known for their advanced society and agriculture. Capital was Tenochtitlán. Eventually defeated by Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortes in 1521.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Spanish missionary best known for advocating for the rights of Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer credited with "discovering" (he didn't) the Americas in 1492 while searching for a westward route to Asia. He landed in the Bahamas and thought he was in India, calling the natives there "Indians."

Colombian Exchange

The widespread transfer of animals, plants, diseases, and culture between the Americas (the "New World) and Europe (the "Old World). Included some trade with Africa and Asia as well.

encomienda

A Spanish labor system in the Americas where Spanish colonizers had a royal grant to force Indigenous peoples into labor, as well as occupy the land.

Inca

Mesoamerican empire centered in present-day Peru known for its advanced engineering and centralized governance. Eventually conquered by Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s.

Mestizo

Term for individuals of mixed European and Native American heritage. Emerged during the Spanish colonial period and were low on the social hierarchy scale.

"Starving Time"

The harsh winter of 1609 - 1610 in Jamestown defined by food shortages, disease, and conflicts with Native Americans. Only 1/5 of the population survived.

Anglo-Powhatan Wars

1610 - 1646. A series of conflicts between the Jamestown settlers and the Powhatan Confederacy over land. Led to Powhatan defeat and loss of their land.

Black Legend

A propaganda term used to describe Spain's brutal treatment of Native Americans during colonization, often used by rival European powers.

Franciscans

A Catholic religious order focused on missionary work in the Spanish colonies who sought to convert Native Americans to Christianity through education and evangelism.

indentured servants

Individuals who agreed to labor for a set number of years in exchange for passage to the colonies in America; often subjected to harsh treatment and limited rights.

Iroquois

A Native American confederacy in the northeastern U.S. consisting of 5 (later 6) tribes. Known for their military strength and influence in colonial diplomacy.

Jamestown

Founded in Virginia in 1607; the first permanent English settlement in North America. Led by John Smith.

Jesuits

Missionaries of the Society of Jesus Christ who sought to convert Native Americans in the French colonies in North America.

John Rolfe

English settler who was the first to successfully cultivate tobacco in the colonies, leading to tobacco becoming Virginia's cash crop. Later married Pocahontas.

John Smith

English leader who helped establish Jamestown, became the de facto leader of the colony. Did NOT marry Pocahontas...

John Winthrop

The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and a leading figure in the Puritan movement. Famously delivered the "City upon a Hill" sermon outlining the vision of an ideal Christian society.

joint-stock companies

Investment ventures in which multiple shareholders funded colonial expeditions. Example: The Virginia Company, which established Jamestown.

laws of primogeniture

English inheritance laws that claimed property was to be passed down to the firstborn son. Contributed to the migration of younger sons to the American colonies in search of land.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

Established in Massachusetts in 1630. A Puritan settlement that grew into one of the most prosperous and influential colonies in New England. Led by John Winthrop.

Mayflower Compact

1620. Agreement signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower to establish a self-governing colony in Plymouth based on majority rule. Served as a basis for the idea of American democracy and the Declaration of Independence/Constitution.

mercantilism

Economic theory that wealth is measure by the amount of gold and silver a nation possesses; drove European powers to seek colonies and extract their resources to supply the mother country.

New Netherland

Established in present-day New York in 1614. The first Dutch colony in North America known for trade, religious tolerance, and cultural (European) diversity before being ceded to the English in 1664.

Powhatan Confederacy

An alliance of around 30 Alonquian-speaking tribes in Virginia led by Powhatan (aka Wahunsonacock), who traded and conflicted with Jamestown settlers.

Pueblo Revolt

1680. Uprising by the Pueblo people in New Mexico against Spanish rule, successfully driving the Spanish out of the region for a decade before the Spanish returned and overtook them once more.

Puritans

English Protestants who sought to "purify" the Church of England. Many moved to the American colonies to establish a society based on strict religious principles.

Samuel de Champlain

A French explorer who founded Quebec in 1608; helped establish a French presence in North America and formed alliances with Native tribes.

Separatists

A radical branch of Puritans who sought tot separate from the Church of England, most notably the Pilgrims who settled the Plymouth Colony in 1620.

Spanish Armada

1588. A large fleet sent by Spain to invade England that was defeated by the English navy, making a significant shift in European power.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494. Agreement between Spain and Portugal that divided the newly "discovered" lands outside Europe into separate spheres of influence to avoid conflict over colonization.

William Bradford

A Pilgrim leader and second governor of the Plymouth Colony who helped shape its early government.

Anne Hutchinson

A Puritan woman in colonial Massachusetts who challenged religious authority and was banished from the Bay Colony. She and her followers founded Portsmouth, Rhode Island in 1638.

Bacon's Rebellion

1676. A revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon against Virginia Governor William Berkeley's administration, highlighting tensions between poor settlers and the wealthy settlers.

British West Indies

A region in the Caribbean controlled by Britain; economy relied on sugar plantations and enslaved African labor.

Dominion of New England

1686. A short-lived administrative merger of several New England colonies under the royal governor Sir Edmund Andros, aimed at strengthening royal control over the region.

English Civil War

1624 - 1651. A series of conflicts between the Royalists (those who supported King Charles I) and Parliamentarians, leading to temporary overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of the Commonwealth.

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

1639. Considered one of the first written constitutions of America; established a framework for self-governance in Connecticut.

Glorious Revolution

1688. The overthrow of King James II, replacing him with William III and Mary II and limiting royal power through constitutional changes.

King Phillip's War

1675 - 1676 conflict between multiple Native American tribes, led by Metacom (aka King Phillip) and English settlers in New England. Natives destroyed 20% of English towns in Massachusetts and Rhode Island and killed nearly 1,000 settlers.

Metacom

Also known as King Phillip. Leader of the Wampanoag and led his people against English settlers in New England in King Phillip's War.

Pequot War

1636 - 1638. Conflict between the Pequot tribe and English settlers in Connecticut; resulted in near-extermination of the Pequot people.

Roger Williams

A Puritan minister who was banished from Massachusetts for advocating for religious freedom and separation of church and state. Founded Rhode Island (Providence, specifically) in 1636, where Catholics, Quakers, and Jews were able to worship freely.

William Penn

A Quaker who founded Pennsylvania in 1681 as a colony based on religious tolerance, fair treatment of Native Americans, and democratic principles.

Consumer Revolution

Late 1600s - early 1700s. A period of increased consumption of goods in the American colonies; driven by rising incomes and increased availability of goods.

gang system

A labor system used on plantations in which enslaved people were organized into groups (gangs) to work in the fields from sunup to sundown.

George Whitefield

A preacher and key figure in the Great Awakening; known for his charismatic preaching style and revivalist efforts across the colonies.

First Great Awakening

1730s - 1740s. A religious revival movement that swept through the American colonies, emphasizing personal faith, emotional experience, and challenging the traditional authority of the church.

Jonathan Edwards

A prominent preacher during the Great Awakening; famous for his fire-and-brimstone sermons, notably "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."

Navigation Acts

1651 - 1673. A series of British laws that restricted colonial trade to England and its colonies; aimed to control economic activity and increase profit from colonial resources.

Paris and Hubertusburg treaties

1763. Agreements ending the Seven Years' War (aka French and Indian War) with Paris ceding Canada to Britain and Hubertusburg confirming Prussia's control of Silesia. (tbh this is kinda irrelevant just remember the Paris one)

Pontiac's War

1763 - 1766. A Native American uprising led by Chief Pontiac (of the Odawa) against British post-war policies in the Great Lakes and Ohio River Valley following the Seven Years' War.

print culture

The rapid growth of print media, including newspapers, pamphlets, and books which allowed for the faster spread of ideas and was key during Enlightenment.

Proclamation of 1763

A British decree that prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to prevent conflicts with Native Americans after the Seven Years' War.

provincial, proprietary, or charter colonies

Different types of colonial governance: provincial = royally controlled; proprietary = granted to individuals or groups; charter = self-governed with royal approval.

Quaker antislavery

Quakers in Pennsylvania and New Jersey were early advocates for abolitionism as promoting freedom and equality were central to their faith.

Salem Witch Trials

1692. A series of executions of women accused of witchcraft in Massachusetts; fueled by religious mass hysteria and social tensions.

Seven Years' War

1756 - 1763. A global conflict involving major European powers; fought in North America as the French and Indian War, ultimately ending in British victory and territorial gains.

slave codes

1660s - 1800s. Laws that defined the status of enslaved people in the American colonies, limiting their rights and ensuring control by their enslavers.

Stono Rebellion

1739. A slave uprising in South Carolina where slaves, led by a literate enslaved man Jemmy, attempted to escape to Spanish Florida. Unsuccessful and resulted in harsher enforcement of slave codes.

task system

A system used on rice plantations in the Southern colonies where slaves were assigned specific tasks to complete, offering more autonomy once tasks were finished.

The Enlightenment

Late 1600s - early 1800s. A European intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and question of authority.

1. How did Native American societies of North America differ from those of central Mexico and the Andes?

North American societies were diverse and often based on hunting, gathering, and small-scale farming. Those in Central Mexico and the Andes (ex: Aztecs and Incas) were more advanced with large cities, complex social hierarchies, and extensive agricultural systems.

2. What caused Europeans to begin exploring?

Europeans sought new trade routes to Asia, spurred by the desire for spices, wealth, and to spread Christianity; assisted by advancements in navigation and shipbuilding technology.

3. What were the positive and negative effects of the Columbian Exchange? Explain.

Positive effects: introduction of new crops, animals, and goods. Negative effects: spread of diseases that devastated Native populations and the forced migration of enslaved Africans.

4. What "push factors" and "pull factors" caused people to leave England for its colonies in the 17th century?

Push factors: religious persecution, economic hardship, and political instability. Pull factors: promise of land, religious freedom, and economic opportunities in the colonies.

5. What were the similarities and differences in the treatment of Native peoples by the Spanish, French, and

the British?

Spanish: sought to conquer and convert Native peoples through missions. French: established trade alliances with them. British: displaced or attacked them in pursuit of land for settlement.

6. Why did European nations turn to African slave labor in the Americas?

Due to the high demand for labor-intensive crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton, and the decline in Native American populations due to disease and warfare. African slaves were seen as a more reliable and cost-effective workforce for the expanding plantations.

7. What were the 3 types of English colonies? How did they differ?

Provincial: controlled by the crown. Proprietary: granted to individuals or groups. Charter: self-governed with royal approval.

8. In what ways were the northern colonies different from the southern colonies? What factors help to explain those differences?

The northern colonies were more focused on small-scale farming, trade, and industry. The southern colonies relied heavily on plantation agriculture. Geography, climate, and economic priorities shaped these differences.

9. What were the major sources of early colonial tension in North America?

Land disputes, cultural clashes with Native Americans, differing economic systems, and varying religious practices.

10. What were the similarities and differences between Jamestown's relationship with Native Americans and the relationship between Native Americans and the Puritans?

Jamestown: marked by conflict and exploitation. Puritans: initially sought cooperation for mutual benefit but later displaced Native populations as their settlements expanded.

11. What were the causes and effects of Bacon's Rebellion?

Causes: frustration with the Virginia government's handling of Native American relations and perceived corruption. Effects: greater reliance on enslaved labor and a shift in colonial policies toward controlling poor settlers.

12. What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?

Causes: religious mass hysteria and existing social tensions. Effects: the execution of 20 people and a lasting legacy of suspicion and fear of witchcraft.

13. What were the causes and effects of the First Great Awakening?

Causes: a decline in religious enthusiasm. Effects: widespread religious revival, emphasizing personal salvation, and contributed to the growth of evangelical denominations and questioning of established authority.

14. How did salutary neglect impact the development of a national identity in the British colonies?

Allowed the colonies to develop their own political and economic systems, creating a sense of independence and inspiring future revolutionary ideas.