Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century

The Enlightenment

A philosophical movement that emphasized reason and individualism, had a significant impact on politics during this period.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

A major conflict that involved most of the great powers of Europe. It was fought between two alliances

The French Revolution (1789-1799)

A period of radical social and political upheaval in France that had a profound impact on Europe. It led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic, and ultimately resulted in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

The Congress of Vienna (1815)

A conference of European leaders that was convened after the defeat of Napoleon. Its aim was to restore stability and order to Europe after the upheavals of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

Rationalism

The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge and truth, rather than tradition or authority. They believed that through reason, humans could understand the world and make progress.

Empiricism

The belief that knowledge comes from experience and observation, rather than innate ideas or divine revelation. They believed that the scientific method was the best way to gain knowledge about the world.

Secularism

The belief that religion should not play a dominant role in society or government. Many thinkers were critical of organized religion and advocated for a separation of church and state.

Individualism

The belief in the importance of individual rights and freedoms. Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the value of individual autonomy and the need for governments to protect individual rights.

Humanism

The belief in the inherent value and dignity of human beings. Enlightenment thinkers rejected the idea of humans as inherently sinful or flawed, and instead emphasized the potential for human progress and improvement.

Transatlantic Slave Trade

It was a system of forced migration of millions of Africans from their homelands to the Americas, Europe, and other parts of the world. It was one of the largest and most brutal forced migrations in history, lasting from the 16th to the 19th century.

Commercial Revolution

a period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism from the 16th to the 18th century. It was characterized by the growth of international trade, the rise of capitalism, and the emergence of new financial institutions.

Price Revolution

A period of inflation that occurred in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. It was caused by the influx of gold and silver from the New World, which led to an increase in the money supply and a rise in prices.

English Protestants

Religious group in England that broke away from the Catholic Church in the 16th century due to disagreements over papal authority and doctrine. They believe in the supremacy of the Bible and justification by faith alone.

English Catholics

Religious minority in England who adhered to the Catholic faith, especially during the reign of Elizabeth I and the subsequent Penal Laws.

British colonialism

refers to the policy of acquiring and maintaining colonies and territories outside of Great Britain for economic and strategic purposes.

British East India Company

This was established in 1600 to trade with the East Indies and became the dominant power in India by the mid-18th century.

Battle of Rossbach (1757)

A decisive victory for Prussia over France and Austria.

Battle of Plassey (1757)

A British victory over the Nawab of Bengal in India, which established British control over the region.

Battle of Quebec (1759)

A British victory over France in Canada, which marked a turning point in the war.

Battle of Kunersdorf (1759)

A costly victory for Austria over Prussia.

Battle of Minden (1759)

A British-led victory over France in Germany.

Proclamation of 1763

The British government prohibited the colonists from settling beyond the Appalachian Mountains, which angered many colonists who wanted to expand westward.

Boston Massacre

In 1770, British soldiers fired on a crowd of colonists in Boston, killing five people. This event further inflamed tensions between the colonists and the British government.

Intolerable Acts

In response to the Boston Tea Party, the British government passed a series of laws that restricted the colonists' rights and freedoms.

Boston Tea Party

In 1773, a group of colonists dressed as Native Americans boarded British ships and dumped tea into Boston Harbor in protest of the Tea Act.

National Assembly

It was formed after the Third Estate broke away from the Estates-General and declared themselves the true representatives of the French people.

Tennis Court Oath

A pivotal event of the French Revolution where members of the Third Estate pledged to not disband until a new constitution was created.

The Directory

An intellectual and philosophical movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism, and challenged traditional beliefs and institutions.

Haitian Revolution

Caused by a combination of factors, including the brutal treatment of slaves, the influence of the French Revolution, and the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, a former slave who became a military leader.

Napoleon Bonaparte

* French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution.


* He became the first consul of the French Republic in 1799 and later crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804.
* He conquered much of Europe and implemented several reforms, including the Napoleonic Code, which laid the foundation for modern civil law.

Napoleon's Code

Legal system established by Napoleon in 1804, based on equality before the law, property rights, and freedom of religion. It abolished feudalism and established a merit-based system of advancement. It served as a model for many other countries' legal systems.

The Hundred Days' War

Conflict between Napoleon Bonaparte and European powers after his return from exile. Ended with Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism. It promoted scientific thought and challenged traditional authority, paving the way for modern democracy and human rights.

Liberalism

A political ideology that emphasizes individual freedom, equality, and the protection of civil liberties. Liberals believe in limited government, free markets, and the rule of law. They advocate for social and economic justice, and support policies that promote equal opportunity and a level playing field for all individuals.

Socialism

A belief in the existence of a supreme being who created the universe but does not intervene in its affairs.

Deism

Belief in a higher power that created the universe but does not intervene in daily life.

Great Awakening

Religious revival in 18th century America. Led to increased church attendance, new denominations, and emphasis on personal salvation.

**Romanticism**

Artistic and literary movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature. Reacted against Enlightenment's rationalism and industrialization. Flourished in Europe and America in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Notable figures include Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, and Shelley.

William Blake

English poet, painter, and printmaker who lived from 1757 to 1827. He is known for his visionary poetry, which often combined religious and mystical themes with social and political commentary. Some of his most famous works include "Songs of Innocence and of Experience", "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell", and "Jerusalem". Blake was also a skilled artist and created many of his own illustrations for his poetry.

Caspar David Friedrich

German Romantic painter known for his sublime landscapes and allegorical scenes. He often depicted solitary figures in contemplative poses, emphasizing the individual's relationship with nature and the divine.

Eugène Delacroix

Artist known for his Romantic style paintings, including "Liberty Leading the People" and "The Death of Sardanapalus". He was a leading figure of the French Romantic movement in the 19th century.

William Wordsworth

Known for his focus on nature and the beauty of the English countryside, his poetry often celebrated the simple pleasures of life.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

his poetry often explored supernatural themes and the power of the imagination. He is best known for his poem "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner."

Percy Bysshe Shelley

His poetry often explored political and social issues, as well as the power of the individual. He is best known for his poem "Ozymandias."

John Keats

His poetry often explored themes of beauty, love, and mortality. He is best known for his odes, including "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn."

Monarchy

Type of government where a single ruler, usually a king or queen, holds supreme power over a country or territory.

Aristocracy

Social class consisting of individuals with inherited titles, wealth, and power. Historically, aristocrats were the ruling class in many societies, with privileges and authority over the common people.

Industrialization

The process of transforming an economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based, characterized by the use of new technologies, mass production, and urbanization.

Nationalism

A political ideology that emphasizes the importance of a shared national identity, culture, and history. It often leads to the belief that the nation-state is the best form of political organization and promotes the interests of one's own nation above all others.

First Estate

* Consisted of the clergy of the Catholic Church
* Made up of less than 1% of the population
* Owned 10% of the land in France
* Exempt from paying taxes
* Had significant political power and influence

Second Estate

* Consisted of the nobility
* Made up of around 2% of the population
* Owned around 25% of the land in France
* Exempt from paying taxes
* Held important positions in the government, military, and judiciary

Third Estate

* Consisted of the common people
* Made up of around 97% of the population
* Included peasants, artisans, merchants, and bourgeoisie
* Paid heavy taxes and had little political power
* Demanded representation in the government and equal rights

Battle of Yorktown

It was the final battle of the American Revolution. It was fought in Virginia in 1781, where American and French forces defeated the British army.

Battle of Saratoga

A pivotal battle during the American Revolution, fought in 1777 in New York. The American victory convinced France to enter the war on the side of the Americans.