animal behavior & welfare

VET30430

what is the relevance of animal behavior to veterinary medicine?

• clinical indicator

• safe handling

• management tool

• animal welfare

Tinbergen’s 4 questions

1. why is the animal performing the behavior, how does it benefit the animal’s fitness?

2. how did the behavior evolve & how has natural selection modified the behavior?

3. what are the underlying mechanisms or stimuli eliciting the behavior?

4. how has the behavior developed during the animal’s lifetime?

function (adaption)

why is the animal performing the behavior, how does it benefit the animal’s fitness?

evolution (phylogeny)

how did the behavior evolve & how has natural selection modified the behavior?

causation (mechanism)

what are the underlying mechanisms or stimuli eliciting the behavior?

development (ontogeny)

how has the behavior developed during the animal’s lifetime?

ethogram

displays animal behavior as pictures or a written description

recognize what is normal and abnormal

types of animal communication

• visual

• olfactory

• tactile

• auditory

visual communication

what others can see to perceive emotional state or sexual receptivity

examples of visual communication

• facial expressions

• ear & tail movements

• pupil dilation/ constriction

• tense muscles/ pilo erection

• lameness

examples of visual communication in breeding

• chin resting

• vulva winking

• mounting

olfactory communication

transfer scent through urines, feces, glandular secretions by spraying, rubbing, rolling

examples of olfactory communication

• Flehmen response (lip curl & vomeronasal organ)

• set spatial boundaries (bathroom, territory, resources)

• display sexual behavior (increased female urination)

• maternal & teat-seeking behavior (smell offspring & inguinal wax)

• anxiety related issues

tactile communication

physical actions to form social bonds, test sexual receptivity, & safe handling

examples of tactile communication

• chin resting

• mounting

• standing heat

• vulva winking

• grooming

• teat-seeking

auditory communication

deliver contextual or referential information

determine identifiers specific to individuals

act as a management tool

examples of auditory communiation

• predator alarm- aerial vs land based

• audience effect- are there vulnerable chicks present

• perspective taking- what area are we currently in

• tidbitting- mother indicates to chick what is good food

• dog bark & cat purr

• territorial crow call

• mother-lamb recognition

female sexual behavior

proceptivity

receptivity

signs of estrus (combination of all communication types)

proceptivity

female willingness and motivation to mate & the extent to which a female initiates mating

receptivity

willingness of a female to accept male mounting & sexual behaviors exhibited by a female to promote copulation

male sexual behavior

assess estrus & sexual receptivity

mount

intromission & copulation

factors that influence sexual behavior

• rearing environment (if reared in all-male or isolation)

• health (ex. lameness, injury)

• BCS

• dominance status (subordinate vs. dominant)

• mate choice (preference based on age, coat color, dominance)

factors influencing maternal behavior

• genotype (breed differences)

• developmental state of offspring (altricial vs. precocious)

• parity (behavior improves with experience)

• hormonal/ vagino-cervical secretion (trigger to elicit behavior)

• human interference in parturition

maintenance behavior

• feeding

• drinking

• elimination

• rest & sleep

• body care

• thermal recognition

considerations for feeding

competition to access feed

appropriate diet?

considerations for drinking

competition for access

considerations for elimination

designates space vs. dirty animals

considerations for rest & sleep

stocking density & bedding

species-specific requirements

artificial lighting

considerations for body care

availability of bust baths (chicken) & brushes (cow)

considerations for thermal regulation

heat stress (pig & poultry)

during summer & transport

negative impacts of training on welfare

• when unethical/aversive methods are used and triggers anxiety, fear, pain

• too difficult and triggers frustration

• weakens human-animal relationship

positive impacts of training on welfare

• ethical methods are used and trigger positive emotions

• provide a sense of predictability & control over environment

• communicates owner expectations of behavior

• enriching & facilitates learning

• obtain pleasurable rewards

• strengthens human-animal relationship

learning

the process by which an animal modifies its behavior as the result of experience

• any species can learn and be trained

• important for survival so can be highly motivating and enriching

associative learning

a change of behavior that occurs due to a correlations between events

• classical conditioning

• operant conditioning

classical conditioning

an animal unconsciously learns to automatically react to a stimulus

• result is a physiological or emotional reflex

• harnessed in training and behavior modification (counterconditioning)

pavlov’s dog

unconditioned stimulus- bowl of food

unconditioned response- salivation

neutral stimulus- bell ringing

conditioned stimulus- bell ringing

conditioned response- salivation

operant conditioning (trial & error learning)

if this cue occurs and i do this behavior, then this consequence will happen (animal makes a conscious choice to repeat behavior)

• the nature of the consequence determines if the behavior will be repeated in the future

• ex. positive/negative reinforcement/punishment

positive reinforcement

add something to increase behavior

behavior increases because pleasure is stimulated

ex. give a treat for sitting

negative reinforcement

subtract something to increase behavior

behavior increases because relief is stimulated

ex. less pressure on neck from choke chain when pulling stops

positive punishment

add something to decrease behavior

behavior decreases because anxiety/fear/pain is stimulated

ex. choke chain applies pressure to neck when pulling

negative punishment

subtract something to decrease behavior

behavior decreases & frustration may occur

ex. no treat given for not sitting

ethical training

combination of positive reinforcement and negative punishment

types of reinforcers

primary

secondary

lifestyle reward

primary reinforcer

things the animal doesn’t need to learn to like

can have hierarchy & needs to be determined to maintain motivation

ex. food

secondary reinforcer

things the animal learns to like as they have been classically conditioned

marks correct behavior & buys time to get primary reinforcer ready

ex. clicker, word, whistle, patting

lifestyle reward

give the animal what they want when they do a behavior you like

reinforcement schedule for operant conditioning

new behaviors- reward every time (continuous ratio)

established behaviors- reward at a variable number of repetitions to make behavior stronger & more resistant to change/extinctions

lure & reward

use a treat to guide the animal into the correct position

capturing

reward desirable behavior that the animal does spontaneously

with the help of secondary reinforcers

targeting

training an animal to touch something that can be used to guide them into positions and teach more complex tasks

shaping

breaking a complex task into smaller, more achiievable steps and training each step separately

chaining

separately trained steps joined up to create a bigger, more complex task

training/shaping plan

1. select a goal behavior

2. precisely describe what is involved in it

3. break it down into small east steps (training criteria)

4. choose your methods/techniques and train each step separately

5. monitor how well they do with each trial (repetition)

6. trainer should be flexible & training plan adaptable

7. once task is trained in one location/context it should be trained in other situations to promote generalization

associative learning

response substitution/differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior

• operant conditioning is used to teach the animal to perform a desirable behavior instead of an unwanted one

types of associative learning

• extinction

• counterconditioning

extinction

process where a previously rewarded behavior goes away and is no longer rewarded

counterconditioning

an animal’s negative emotional response to an item/individual/situation is changed by associating it with something positive/desirable

used with desensitization

non-associative learning

change in behavior that occurs without aa correlation between events

• related to the frequency/duration of exposure rather than the consequences of behavior

types of non-associative learning

• imprinting

• observational learning

• insight learning

• latent learning

• habituation

• desensitization

• flooding

imprinting

neonate attaches to/follow the first object/individual it is exposed to after birth & recognizes it as their caregiver

observational learning

learning from watching other individuals perform a behavior

insight learning

innovate behaviors/problem-solving strategies that appear to materialize suddenly but are a result of mental reorganization of previous experiences

latent learning

learning from experience/observation that is not immediately used but may be activated later

habituation

response to a new stimulus reduces over time as exposure to it has neutral consequences as the anima learns that it is of no importance to them and learns to ignore it

• initially context specific

desensitization

animal’s response to a stimulus is gradually reduced over time by exposing them to the stimulus at a lower intensity/duration and incrementally building up to full intensity/duration over multiple occasions

flooding

animal’s response to a stimulus is reduced by exposing them to the stimulus at full intensity/duration with no escape possible

• may or may not work and may make response worse/lead to learned helplessness

animal welfare

physical and mental state of an animal in relation to the conditions in which it lives & dies

roles of vets in animal welfare

• prevention and treatment of disease

• provision of pain relief

• advice on nutrition and housing

• interpretation of behavior

• knowledge transfer

• advocacy for animals

animal welfare science

using scientific methods to study animal welfare developed in response to society’s concern about the treatment of animals

• evaluation of evidence and testing of hypotheses

aspects of animal welfare (fraser)

• natural living

• function

• mental wellbeing

natural living (fraser)

the animal in its natural environment

ability to express full behavior repertoire

function (fraser)

clinical health and wellbeing

productivity

mental wellbeing (fraser)

sentience- a life worth living

sentience

the capacity for an animal to have positive and negative experiences (to feel)

must be taken into account when making laws/policy & when interacting with animals/environments in which they live

animal welfare assessment

objectively assess animal’s current situation

• what we measure and what we can manage

• provide a baseline for future assessment/guide management decisions

• need valid, reliable, and objective indicators of health & wellbeing

animal-based welfare indicators

empirical/ evidence-based measurements that can be correlated with an animal’s affective state

• physiological

• behavioral

• physical

• production

how to use animal-based indicators

• direct/indirect measurement

• individual vs. group

• cumulative

• predicative

• iceberg (what lies beneath the surface?)

3 R's (russel & burch)

1. replacement

2. reduction

3. refinement

replacement (russel & burch)

avoid or replace the use of animals

reduction (russel & burch)

minimize the number of animals used

refinement (russel & burch)

minimize pain, suffering, distress, or lasting harm

five freedoms

1. freedom from hunger and thirst

2. freedom from discomfort

3. freedom from pain, injury, disease

4. freedom from fear & distress

5. freedom to express normal behavior

freedom from hunger and thirst

ready access to fresh water and diet to maintain full health and vigor

freedom from discomfort

a suitable environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area

freedom from pain, injury, disease

prevention of rapid diagnosis and treatment

freedom from fear & distress

conditions that avoid mental suffering

freedom to express normal behavior

sufficient space, proper facilities, and the company of the animal’s own kind

4 principles of welfare quality (botreau) & 12 criteria

1. good feeding

2. good housing

3. good health

4. appropriate behavior

good feeding

• absence of prolonged hunger

  • assess via BCS

• absence of prolonged thirst

  • assess via number, flow, functioning points, cleanliness

good housing

• comfort around resting

  • time needed to lie down

  • collision with housing equipment during lying down

  • animal lying partly or completely outside area

  • cleanliness of udder, flanks, legs

• thermal comfort

• ease of movement

  • presence of tethering

  • access to outdoor loafing area/pasture

good health

• absence of injuries

  • lameness

  • integument alterations

• absence of disease

  • coughing/ hampered respiration

  • discharge & diarrhea

  • milk somatic cell count

  • mortality & dystocia

• absence of pain induced by management procedures

  • disbudding/dehorning

  • tail docking

appropriate behavior

• expression of social behavior

• expression of other behaviors

• good human-animal relationships

• positive emotional state 

5 domains model (mellor)

what matters to the animal is its subjective experience

systematic assessment of the impact of inputs from 4 physical domains on the animal’s mental state (positive/ negative effects)

1. nutrition

2. physical environment

3. health

4. behavioral interactions

5 freedoms vs. 5 domains

freedoms

• focus on preventing negative states

• equal emphasis on each freedom

• absolute

• simple and has wide appeal

• unattainable?

domains

• explicitly includes positive states

• hierarchical structure with links between functional domains and affective state

• recognizes degrees of welfare compromise/enhancement

• complicated

• qualitative not quantitative

welfare inputs

should be validated, evidence-based, & species-specific

resource based (what humans provide)

• ex. feed, shelter, veterinary care, bedding, exercise

management based (processes & procedures)

• milking frequency, tail docking, stocking density

welfare outputs

animal based & should be considered in the context of inputs

• ex. BCS, health status, behavior

measurements of good welfare

animal based measure (ABM)

resource based measure (RBM)

management based measure (MBM)

narrow thermal neutral zone

pigs & chickens

stay mostly indoors in areas that use energy to make heat

wide thermal neutral zone

horses, sheep, cows

stay mostly outdoors in natural areas with some indoor housing

other welfare assessment tools

• animal welfare assessment grid

  • how an animal presents over time

• qualitative behavioral assessment

  • how an animal performs an action

• animal welfare assessment in precision livestock farming (PLF)

  • sensory technology for remote monitoring