AP Psych Final Review for AP Exam! [for the updated 2025 exam] (copy)

What is psychology defined as?

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What three components are included in the scientific attitude?

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

Who is associated with the concept of structuralism in psychology?

Wilhelm Wundt, who focused on introspection.

What does functionalism in psychology emphasize?

The function of mental and behavioral processes in helping organisms adapt and survive.

Define critical thinking.

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions.

What is the empirical approach?

The idea that knowledge comes from experience via observation and experimentation.

Explain confirmation bias.

The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs.

What is hindsight bias?

The belief that one would have foreseen an outcome after it has occurred.

What does overconfidence refer to in psychology?

The belief that we know more than we actually do.

Define cultural norms.

Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables, usually framed as an if/then statement.

What is the null hypothesis?

The assumption that there is no relationship between variables.

What does the p-value indicate in research?

The likelihood that the null hypothesis is correct. Lower p-values indicate stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.

What does it mean for a hypothesis to be falsifiable?

It means that it can be proven wrong through experimentation.

Differentiate between the independent and dependent variables in an experiment.

The independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable, which is measured.

Define confounding variable.

A factor other than the independent variable that might influence the dependent variable.

What is the operational definition?

A statement that defines how variables are measured in a study.

What is the purpose of replication in psychological research?

To reproduce a study to verify the results and improve the understanding of human behavior.

What is random sampling?

A technique where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study.

What is convenience sampling?

Choosing subjects based on their availability and willingness to participate.

Explain representative sampling.

A subset of the population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population.

What does generalizability refer to in research findings?

The extent to which results can be applied to the whole population beyond the specific context of the study.

Define sampling bias.

When a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.

What distinguishes the experimental group from the control group?

The experimental group receives the treatment, while the control group does not.

What is the placebo effect?

A phenomenon where participants experience changes due to their expectations about a treatment, not because of the treatment itself.

Define single-blind study.

A study where participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Explain double-blind study.

Both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who received the treatment or a placebo.

What is qualitative research?

Research that provides depth and context to understand human behavior through unstructured interviews.

What is quantitative research?

Research that quantifies variables in a measurable, generalizable manner to test theories.

Define case study in psychology.

An in-depth examination of a single individual or group, often revealing insights applicable to a broader population.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

What does a survey entail in psychological research?

A technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, which may be influenced by question wording.

Explain self-report bias.

When responses may be inaccurate due to memory errors, misunderstandings, or intentional deception.

What is meta-analysis?

A statistical technique that synthesizes results from multiple studies to identify patterns.

Define directionality problem in correlational research.

When it is unclear which variable is the cause and which is the effect.

What is third variable problem in correlational research?

When an unmeasured third variable affects both correlated variables.

Define statistics in the context of research.

The science of collecting and analyzing numerical data.

What are descriptive statistics?

Statistical methods that summarize and describe characteristics of a data set.

What is the mean in statistics?

The average value of a data set.

Define mode in a data set.

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

What does median refer to in statistics?

The middle score in a data set when ordered from lowest to highest.

Define standard deviation.

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

What is the range in statistics?

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.

What is the percentile rank?

The percentage of scores that fall below a certain score.

What is the normal curve?

A bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of many types of data.

Define skewed distribution.

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around the average value.

What is bimodal distribution?

When a distribution has two distinct peaks.

What does regression toward the mean refer to?

The phenomenon where extreme observations tend to be closer to the average on subsequent measurements.

What is correlation?

A measure that indicates the relationship between two variables.

Define correlation coefficient.

A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

What is a scatterplot?

A graph that uses dots to represent the values of two different variables.

Define histogram.

A bar graph that represents the frequency distribution of a dataset.

What does illusory correlation imply?

Perceiving a relationship between two variables that does not actually exist.

What does inferential statistics allow researchers to do?

To make generalizations about a population based on sample data.

What is statistical significance?

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Define biological psychology.

The study of links between biological processes and psychological processes.

What are the primary structures of the forebrain?

Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.

Define central nervous system (CNS).

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

What is the sensory (afferent) nervous system?

Transmits sensory information to the CNS.

What does the motor (efferent) nervous system do?

Carries signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Define the autonomic nervous system.

Controls involuntary actions and regulates glands and organs.

Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Sympathetic prepares the body for 'fight or flight,' while parasympathetic promotes 'rest and digest' functions.

What is the function of neurons?

Serve as the basic building blocks of the nervous system; transmit signals.

What are glial cells?

Support, nourish, and protect neurons.

What part of the neuron is responsible for receiving signals?

Dendrites.

What is the axon's role?

It passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Define synapse.

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

What happens during reuptake?

Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the sending neuron after they have fulfilled their function.

Define the all-or-nothing principle in neural firing.

A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

What does depolarization refer to in neural activity?

The loss of the difference in charge between the inside and outside of the neuron.

What is action potential?

The neural impulse that travels down the axon when a neuron fires.

What is the refractory period in neural firing?

The brief time after an action potential when a neuron cannot fire again.

Define the resting potential of a neuron.

The state of a neuron when it is not firing, with a negative charge inside compared to the outside.

What is the threshold in the context of neural impulses?

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

What is multiple sclerosis?

A disease where the myelin sheath deteriorates, leading to communication issues between the brain and muscles.

What does myelin sheath do for neurons?

Enhances the speed of neural impulses along the axon.

Define neurotransmitters.

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse between neurons.

What are excitatory neurotransmitters?

Chemicals that promote the generation of an electrical signal in the receiving neuron.

What is the function of inhibitory neurotransmitters?

Chemicals that inhibit or prevent the generation of an electrical signal in the receiving neuron.

Describe the role of dopamine.

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; links to mental illness and addiction.

What does serotonin regulate?

Mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

What role does norepinephrine play?

Helps control alertness and arousal.

Define glutamate.

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

What is GABA?

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates stress.

Explain the role of endorphins in the body.

Influences the perception of pain or pleasure.

Describe the function of acetylcholine (ACh).

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

What is the endocrine system?

The body's chemical communication system regulating growth, metabolism, and behavior.

What does the pituitary gland control?

Regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Define adrenaline.

A hormone activated in response to stress, increases heart rate and energy.

What is the role of leptin in the body?

Signals satiety to reduce appetite.

What does ghrelin do?

Stimulates hunger.

What role does melatonin play in the body?

Regulates sleepiness.

Define psychoactive drugs.

Chemicals that alter perceptions, mood, and behavior.

What are agonists in pharmacology?

Molecules that increase a neurotransmitter's action.

What do antagonists do in a psychological context?

Block or inhibit a neurotransmitter's action.

Define reuptake inhibitors.

Drugs that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, enhancing their action.

What are stimulants?

Drugs that increase neural activity and speed up body functions.

What are depressants?

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions.

Define hallucinogens.

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images without sensory input.

What are opioids?

Drugs that depress neural activity and temporarily relieve pain.