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Psychology
AP Psychology
Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior
Biological Bases of Behavior
Chapter 2
Techniques to Learn About Structure and Function
Paul broca
Broca
Broca’s area
expressive aphasia
Carl Wernicke
Lesions
Roger Sperry
Michael Gazzaniga
Computerized axial tomography
magnetic resonance imaging
Measuring Brain Function
Positron emission tomography
Functional MRI
magnetic source image
Organization of Your Nervous System
Central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic stimulation
Parasympathetic stimulation
Spinal cord
old mammalian brain
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Albinism
________ arises from a failure to synthesize or store pigment and also involves abnormal nerve pathways to the brain, resulting in quivering eyes and the inability to perceive depth or three- dimensionality with both eyes.
Paul Broca
________ (1861) performed an autopsy on the brain of a patient, nicknamed Tan, who had lost the capacity to speak, although his mouth and his vocal cords werent damaged and he could still understand language.
Insomnia
________ is the inability to fall asleep and /or stay asleep.
Psychological dependence
________ develops when the person has an intense desire to achieve the drugged state in spite of adverse effects.
Electroencephalograms
________ (EEGs) can be recorded with electrodes on the surface of the skull.
Positron emission tomography
________ (PET) produces color computer graphics that depend on the amount of metabolic activity in the imaged brain region.
Pons
________ generates bursts of action potentials to the forebrain, which is activation.
Cyton
contains cytoplasm and the nucleus, which directs synthesis of such substances as neurotransmitters.
Glutamate
________ is a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information processing throughout the cortex and especially memory formation in the hippocampus.
Nonconscious
________ is the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely inaccessible to conscious awareness, such as blood flow, filtering of blood by kidneys, secretion of hormones, and lower- level processing of sensations, such as detecting edges, estimating size and distance of objects, recognizing patterns, and so forth.
Psychoactive drugs
________ are chemicals that can pass through the blood- brain barrier into the brain to alter perception, thinking, behavior, and mood, producing a wide range of effects from mild relaxation or increased alertness to vivid hallucinations.
Glial cells
________ guide the growth of developing neurons, help provide nutrition for and get rid of wastes of neurons, and form an insulating sheath around neurons that speeds conduction.
Functional MRI
________ (fMRI) shows the brain at work at higher resolution than the PET scanner.
Circadian rhythm
________ is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep- wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours.
Tay Sachs syndrome
________ produces progressive loss of nervous function and death in a baby.
Freud
________ tried to analyze dreams to uncover the unconscious desires (many of them sexual) and fears disguised in dreams.
Stimulants
________ are psychoactive drugs that activate motivational centers and reduce activity in inhibitory centers of the central nervous system by increasing activity of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine neurotransmitter systems.
Unconsciousness
________ is characterized by loss of responsiveness to the environment, resulting from disease, trauma, or anesthesia.
Cerebral cortex center
________ for higher- order processes such as thinking, planning, judgment; receives and processes sensory information and directs movement.
endocrine system
consists of glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones into your blood.
Hypothalamus
portion of brain part that acts as endocrine gland and produces hormones that stimulate (releasing factors) or inhibit secretion of hormones by the pituitary.
Gamma aminobutyric acid
________ (GABA) inhibits firing of neurons.
Lucid dreaming
the ability to be aware of and direct ones dreams, has been used to help people make recurrent nightmares less frightening.
Hypnosis
________ is an altered state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility.
dissociation theory
hypnotized individuals experience two or more streams of consciousness cut off from each other.
Antagonists
________ block a receptor site, inhibiting the effect of the neurotransmitter or agonist.
Tolerance
decreasing responsivity to a drug.
Endocrine
glands include the pineal gland, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland in your brain; the thyroid and parathyroids in your neck; the adrenal glands atop your kidneys; pancreas near your stomach; and either testes or ovaries.
Withdrawal symptoms
________ include intense craving for the drug and effects opposite to those the drug usually induces.
Heritability
________ is the proportion of variation among individuals in a population that is due to genetic causes.
Agonists
________ may mimic a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor site to produce the effect of the neurotransmitter.
Narcotics
________ are analgesics (pain reducers) that work by depressing the central nervous system.
Preconscious
________ is the level of consciousness that is outside of awareness but contains feelings and memories that you can easily bring into conscious awareness.
Depressants
________ are psychoactive drugs that reduce the activity of the central nervous system and induce relaxation.
Central nervous system
consists of your brain and your spinal cord
Somatic nervous system
has motor neurons that stimulate skeletal (voluntary) muscle
Autonomic nervous system
has motor neurons that stimulate smooth (involuntary) and heart muscle
Plasticity
Although specific regions of the brain are associated with specific functions, if one region is damaged, the brain can reorganize to take over its function
Pineal Gland
endocrine gland in brain that produces melatonin that helps regulate circadian rhythms and is associated with seasonal affective disorder
Hypothalamus
portion of brain part that acts as endocrine gland and produces hormones that stimulate (releasing factors) or inhibit secretion of hormones by the pituitary
Pituitary Gland
endocrine gland in brain that produces stimulating hormones, which promote secretion by other glands including TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone); ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which stimulates the adrenal glands; FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), which stimulates egg or sperm production; ADH (antidiuretic hormone) to help retain water in your body; and HGH (human growth hormone)
Thyroid Gland
endocrine gland in neck that produces thyroxine, which stimulates and maintains metabolic activities
Parathyroids
endocrine glands in neck that produce parathyroid hormone, which helps maintain calcium ion level in blood necessary for normal functioning of neurons
Adrenal Glands
endocrine glands atop kidneys
Pancreas
gland near stomach that secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar that fuels all behavioral processes
Ovaries and Testes
gonads in females and males, respectively, that produce hormones necessary for reproduction and development of secondary sex characteristics
Hypothalamus
systematically regulates changes in your body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, blood sugar levels, hormonal levels, and activity levels over the course of about a day
Tolerance
decreasing responsivity to a drug
dendrite
a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which signals are received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.
Axon
long, thin, hollow, cylindrical extension of a neuron that carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body
Cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and most organelles
Nucleus
large membrane
Axon Terminal
The branched end of the axon contains neurotransmitters. Sends the neurotransmitters to the receiving neuron's dendrites
Myelin sheath
insulating layer around many axons that increases the speed of conduction of nerve impulses.
Schwann cell
type of cell responsible for forming the myelin sheath around the neurons, and supplying nutrients to individual axons
Node of Ranvier
any of the successive, regularly spaced gaps in the myelin sheath surrounding an axon. The gaps permit the exchange of ions across the plasma membrane at those points, allowing the nerve impulse to leap from one node to the next
neuron
the basic cellular unit of the nervous system
neuropsychologist
studies the physiological processes of the nervous system and relates them to behavior and cognition, in terms of their normal function and of the dysfunctional processes associated with brain damage.
neurogenesis
the production of new neurons during early nervous system development and throughout the lifespan
biological psychology
deals with the biological basis of behavior, thoughts, and emotions and the reciprocal relations between biological and psychological processes.
reflex
automatic, unlearned, fixed responses to stimuli that don’t require conscious effort and often involve a faster response than if a conscious evaluation of the input were required.
action potential
The electrical impulse that travels down an axon. a wave of electrical depolarization and ion exchange occurs along the axon
refractory period
a period of inactivity and repolarization occurs after action potential.
threshold
The minimum amount of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
reflex arc
the sensory neuron sends a signal to the interneuron and activates it. The interneuron then relays that signal to a motor neuron. Motor neurons connect with interneurons in the spinal cord. Sends messages from the central nervous system to the body.
synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving cell
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that carry messages between the body.
reuptake
The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed by the sending neuron
Acetylcholine (Ach)
Excitatory, released by motor neurons. Stimulates muscle contraction; involved in attention, memory, learning and general intellectual functioning
Effect of deficit: Alzheimers
Effect of surplus: severe muscle spasms
Dopamine (DA)
Inhibitory, pleasurable sensations involved in voluntary movement, attention, and learning
Effect of deficit: Parkinson’s Disease, Schizophrenia
Effect of surplus: Drug Addiction
Serotonin
Inhibitory, moods and emotional states, hunger regulation of sleep and wakefulness (arousal)
Effect of deficit: Depression, mood disorders
Effect of surplus: autism
Norepinephrine (NE)
Excitatory, Used for arousal in the flight/fight response, modulation of mood, plays a role in learning and memory retrieval
Effect of deficit: Mental disorders, especially depression
Effect of surplus: Anxiety
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
Inhibitory, helps to offset excitatory messages and regulate daily sleep-wake cycles
Effect of deficit: Anxiety, seizures, tremors, and insomnia
Effect of surplus: Sleep and eating disorders
Endorphins
Inhibitory, Inhibits perception of pain, involved in positive emotions
Effect of deficit: Body experiences pain
Effect of surplus: Body may not give adequate warning about pain. Artificial highs
Glutamate
Excitatory, Used in memory, learning, movement. Helps messages cross the synapse more efficiently
Effect of surplus: Too much glutamate (and too little GABA) associated with epileptic seizures
Nervous system
The body’s electrochemical communication network is made of nerve cells.
Nerves
electrical cables formed of bundles of axons link the CNS with the body’s sensory receptors, muscles, and glands.
Sensory (afferent) neurons
carry messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain
Motor (efferent) neurons
carry instructions from the central nervous system out to the body’s muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord, are connected to the peripheral nervous system near the spinal cord. Sends information to each other.
Peripheral nervous system
all parts outside the central nervous system. Afferent fibers of the PNS bring messages from the sense organs to the central nervous system; efferent fibers transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
Somatic nervous system
enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles
Autonomic ANS) nervous system
controls our glands and the muscles of the internal organs
Sympathetic nervous system
part of ANS that arouses and mobilizes the body
Parasympathetic nervous system
part of ANS that calms and conserves energy
Endocrine system
the body’s slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
hormones
Hormones are manufactured by the endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream to affect other tissues.
Adrenal gland
Pair of glands just above the kidneys that secrete hormones (norepinephrine, epinephrine, cortisol)
Pituitary gland
Regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
brainstem
connects the brain and spinal cord and is responsible for automatic functions.
cerebellum
Processes sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
Cerebral cortex (cerebrum)
intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres. body's ultimate control and information processing center.
hypothalamus
neural structure below the thalamus. directs eating, drinking, body temperature, and helps govern the pituitary gland. Also linked to emotions and rewards
pons
Regulates sleeping and dreaming
Medulla (oblongata)
base of brainstem. controls heartbeat and breathing.
thalamus
located on the top of brainstem. directs messages to sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Reticular formation
nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays a role in controlling arousal.
amygdala
Two bean