The Origins of the Chinese Empire, to 220 C.E.

Vocabulary flashcards summarizing key terms, people, ideas, and innovations from China’s early imperial history, 2200 B.C.E.–220 C.E.

Yellow River (Huang He)

Northern Chinese river whose loess-laden floods nurtured but also devastated early settlements; birthplace of China’s first civilizations.

Yangzi River (Chang Jiang)

Southern Chinese river known as “China’s blessing,” a deep, navigable waterway that supports fertile, warm, rainy farmlands.

Loess

Fine yellowish silt carried by the Yellow River that replenished soil fertility and encouraged early agriculture.

Predynastic China

Era before formal dynasties when villages formed, silk production began, and legendary culture heroes were celebrated.

Fuxi

Mythic benefactor credited with founding the family and teaching animal husbandry.

Shennong

Legendary figure said to have invented agriculture and farming tools.

Huangdi (Yellow Emperor)

Cultural hero reputed to have created silk, boats, the bow and arrow, and a writing system; viewed as first predynastic ruler.

Yu the Great

Legendary engineer who controlled Yellow River floods and allegedly founded the Xia dynasty.

Xia Dynasty

China’s first historical dynasty (c. 2200–1750 B.C.E.), centered in the middle Yellow River region.

Erlitou

Large Xia-period city, possibly the capital, with palaces, paved roads, and bronze foundries.

Shang Dynasty

Bronze-age Chinese dynasty (c. 1750–1122 B.C.E.) noted for city-states, stratified society, and oracle-bone writing.

Anyang

Major Shang capital whose excavations reveal palaces, tombs, and evidence of complex warfare.

Oracle bones

Turtle shells or shoulder bones cracked by heat to divine the gods’ will; earliest known Chinese writing.

Chinese characters

Logographic writing system in which each symbol represents a word or idea rather than a sound.

Ancestor worship

Ritual veneration of deceased kin believed to influence the living and intercede with deities.

Zhou Dynasty

Longest Chinese dynasty (1122–256 B.C.E.) that introduced the Mandate of Heaven and feudal rule.

Western Zhou

Early Zhou period (1122–771 B.C.E.) when kings ruled from Hao in the west.

Eastern Zhou

Later Zhou era (770–256 B.C.E.) with capital at Luoyang and growing power of regional warlords.

Mandate of Heaven

Doctrine that Heaven grants a dynasty the right to rule so long as it governs justly and humanely.

Dynastic cycle

Chinese historical pattern in which dynasties rise, prosper, decline through corruption, lose the mandate, and are replaced.

Era of Warring States

Period (403–221 B.C.E.) of intense warfare among independent Chinese states after Zhou authority collapsed.

Central Asian pastoral nomads

Horse-riding herders north and west of China who traded, migrated, and sometimes raided Chinese frontiers.

Ironworking in China

Technology diffused from West Asia that enabled mass-produced weapons, tools, and larger armies in Zhou times.

Cash coins

Round copper coins with square center holes, strung together as early Chinese currency.

Confucianism

Ethical system stressing virtue, humane conduct, ritual propriety, and filial piety to create social harmony.

Confucius (Kongfuzi)

Chinese sage (551–479 B.C.E.) whose teachings on moral governance and proper relationships shaped East Asian thought.

Analects

Collection of Confucius’ sayings compiled by disciples; core text of Confucian philosophy.

Five Classics

Ancient Chinese literary works later canonized by Confucians as authoritative guides to ethics and statecraft.

Ren

Confucian virtue of “humanity” or benevolence toward others.

Li

Confucian concept of ritual etiquette, proper behavior, and respect for social norms.

Xiao

Confucian ideal of filial piety—devotion to parents, ancestors, and superiors.

Mencius (Mengzi)

Influential Confucian thinker (c. 370–290 B.C.E.) who taught innate human goodness and right to rebel against unjust rulers.

Daoism

Philosophy advocating harmony with nature, spontaneity, and minimal interference, founded on ideas in the Daodejing.

Dao (The Way)

Mysterious cosmic force that underlies and unifies all existence in Daoist thought.

Daodejing

“Classic of the Way and Its Power,” principal text of Daoism attributed to Laozi.

Laozi

Legendary sixth-century B.C.E. author of the Daodejing and revered Daoist sage.

Yin and Yang

Complementary cosmic forces—dark/light, female/male, passive/active—whose balance ensures harmony.

Legalism

Authoritarian philosophy advocating strict laws, harsh punishments, and centralized power to maintain order.

Hanfeizi

Legalist theorist whose writings promoted absolute authority and severe discipline.

Li Si

Legalist statesman who advised Qin Shihuangdi, standardized systems, and helped unify China.

Qin State

Western Chinese kingdom that conquered rivals and created the first Chinese empire (221 B.C.E.).

Qin Shihuangdi (First Emperor)

Ruthless founder of the Qin Empire who unified China, standardized systems, and built the first Great Wall.

Standardization under Qin

Uniform written script, currency, weights, measures, laws, road width, and cart axles imposed by Qin rule.

Great Wall

Linked northern fortifications built under Qin Shihuangdi to deter nomadic invasions; later expanded in other dynasties.

Terracotta Army

Life-size clay soldiers and horses buried to guard Qin Shihuangdi’s tomb near Xi’an.

Qin collapse

Fall of the Qin dynasty in 206 B.C.E. due to rebellion, succession struggles, and resentment of harsh rule.

Han Dynasty

Imperial dynasty (202 B.C.E.–220 C.E.) that blended Legalist structure with Confucian ideals and expanded Chinese power.

Emperor Gaozu (Liu Bang)

Peasant-turned-ruler who founded the Han dynasty and eased Qin severity.

Chang’an

Western Han capital and cosmopolitan metropolis; eastern terminus of the Silk Road.

Civil Service Examination

Merit-based testing system, rooted in Confucian learning, used to recruit Han bureaucrats.

Emperor Wudi (Martial Emperor)

Han ruler (141–87 B.C.E.) who expanded the empire, promoted Confucianism, and opened the Silk Road.

Xiongnu

Powerful pastoral confederation north of China that clashed with Han armies.

Wang Mang

Reformist regent who usurped the throne (9–23 C.E.), attempted land reforms, and was overthrown amid disasters.

Later Han

Restored Han period (25–220 C.E.) with capital at Luoyang; experienced revival and eventual decline.

Eunuchs

Castrated palace servants who wielded significant political influence in Han courts.

Yellow Turban Rebellion

Peasant uprising (184 C.E.) against Han oppression, symbolized by yellow headscarves; weakened the dynasty.

Paper

Writing material invented in Han China from mulberry bark and hemp; revolutionized record-keeping.

Acupuncture

Han-era medical technique of inserting needles to balance bodily qi and alleviate pain.

Silk Road

Network of overland trade routes linking China with Central Asia, India, Persia, and the Mediterranean.

Bactrian camel

Two-humped Central Asian camel crucial for transporting goods across Silk Road deserts.

Zhang Qian

Han envoy whose Central Asian explorations (126 B.C.E.) revealed western markets and triggered official opening of Silk Road.