BLD 204 FINAL

Apoptosis: cell size shrinks,
nucleus condenses,
control mechanisms: mitochondrial death receptors, capsases break up the cell, and apoptotic bodies appear with phagocyte receptors to get rid of the cell WITHOUT an immune response to them

Necrosis: the cell size swells,
the nucleus fragments and fades,
there is no control mechanism the cell spews and falls apart,
this results in inflammation, the tissue is gone after receiving an immune response.

Compare and Contrast Apoptosis and Necrosis. Use at least three cell characteristics to show the differences between the two.

Four major steps to recruitment,
1. margination and rolling
2. adhesion to endothelium
3. transmigration through endothelium extravasation
4. migration into interstitial tissues

Leukocyte rolls and attaches onto a selectin
proteoglycan attaches on to the leukocyte where integrin activation by chemokines takes place
stable adhesion leads to migration through endothelium
fibrin and fibronectin are present
chemokines released microbes scatter
macrophage with microbes is present and cytokines are releases usually TNF and IL-1
ANOTHER DESCRIPTION

leukocyte roll then become activated and adhere to endothelium, then transmigrate across the endothelium, pierce through the basement membrane and migrate toward chemoattractantts emanating from the source of injury.
selectins assist in rolling, chemokines assist in activating the neutrophils to increase activity of integrins, integrins assist in firm adhesion

steps of WBC recruitment to inflamed tissue

1.clot
2.inflammatory successful
3.macrophages clean up the mess then bring in the fibroblasts
4.release growth factors, angiogenesis
5.granulation tissue
6.fibroblasts and blood vessels retract and fade away-apoptosis

Explain the steps of wound healing from the macrophage influx until healing is complete. You may use bullet points or paragraph form.

chronic versus acute
: duration of time is longer than acute
ACUTE: exudation of fluid and plasma proteins; emigration of leukocytes
ACUTE: redness, swelling, heat, pain, loss of function
ACUTE: rapid, onset, short duration, edema and neutrophils
CHRONIC: longer duration, lymphocytes and macrophages, proliferation of blood vessels, fibrosis, tissue necrosis
CHRONIC: low grade persistent irritant, foreign bodies, viruses, bacteria, fungi, autoimmune diseases, obesity

compare and contract chronic and acute inflammation

1. lipid peroxidation which leads to membrane damage
2. protein modification which leads to breakdown or misfolding
3. DNA damage whihc leads to mutations. free radicals are removed by spontaneous decay and by specialized enzymatic systems.
excessive production leads to accumulation of free radicals in cells which may damage lipids, proteins and DNA resulting in cell injury

List and describe three effects of increased reactive oxidative stress in the cell.

1. intrinsic/mitochondrial pathway: based on cell injury: GF withdrawal, DNA damage and protein misfolding. sensors in BCL-2 family activate Bax and Bak which make holes in the mitochondrial membrane. Mitochondiral proteins like cytochrome c escape and activate the caspase cascade

2. the death receptor pathway/extrinsic: cell produce surface receptors that can trigger apoptosis, receptor-ligand interaction with factors like TNF and Fas result in activation of the caspase cascade. caspases then initiate, execute cleave, activate nuclease and then all result in apoptic bodies that have controlls cell fragmentation

two pathways of apoptosis, describe them

hypertrophy

Uterine enlargement during pregnancy is an example of

metaplasia

the reversible replacement of one adult cell type to another as an adaptation to stress is called:

Lack of Vitamin D, calcium, or phosphate in rickets

Rickets is a disease caused by a lack of Vitamin D, calcium, or phosphate. The disease causes the bones to be soft and weak, leading to an increased risk of fracture. what is the etiology of the disease?

hypoxic

Carbon monoxide poisoning lowers the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. The type of cell injury that results from carbon monoxide poisoning is

coagulative

Charles had ischemic damage to his left kidney that resulted in necrosis. What type of necrosis would be seen in a kidney?

caseous necrosis

Joan has tuberculosis. She has a granuloma in her lungs that is filled with a crumbly, whitish substance. What is the substance in the granuloma?

mitochondria

ATP depletion and oxidative stress can both be caused by damage to the

painful, swollen and function is lost

Bill fell off his bicycle and got a large, deep scrape on his leg. After a bit, it exhibits all the cardinal signs of inflammation. That means Bill's scrape is warm, red,

macrophages

In the days following an injury, two waves of innate immune cells are recruited to the site. Which type of cell is in the second wave?

initiation of repair and healing

The final outcome and goal of properly controlled, successful inflammation is

vasodilation and increased permeability

The two main vascular changes that occur in inflammation are

phagocytosis of the microbe

The surface of a bacterial cell has been coated with complement protein C3b. This will directly encourage

acute phase protein production in the liver

IL-6 is an important driver of

a 1/2 inch, shallow surgical incision

Healing by first or primary intention will most likely occur in which of the following injuries?

extracellular matrix is seriously damaged

scarring occurs because

stable

which type of cells is able to reproduce rapidly ONLY when damage occurs?

membrane attack complex

complement proteins 56789 together form what defense against microbes?

mast cells

histamine is released from

prostaglandins

COX inhibitors like NSAIDs and steroids prevent the production of arachidonic acid metabolites including ______

granulation tissue

the pink, soft tissue that filled a healing wound after the fibrin clot is called

less able to respond to damage

aging cells are more susceptible to injury because they are

macrophages and neutrophils

the two types of cells that perform phagocytosis during inflammation are

phagocytosis

opsonization of bacteria and other particles enhances

acute phase response

A patient with a serious leg wound is suffering from chills, sleepiness, malaise, and increased heart rate. These systemic effects are due to the proteins of the

fibrin clot

initially, a wound is filled with a

C-reactive protein

which is a clinical lab test used as a measure of inflammation?

thrombocytopenia

deficiency of "clot" cells (platelets)

bacteria

jerry has a bacterial lung infection. as the bacteria multiply and his infection worsens, his lungs fill with puss and fluid until he develops full blown pneumonia with fever, chills and shortness of breath. what is the etiology of jerry's health problem?

hyperplasia

the cells of the milk secreting glands of the breast multiply during pregnancy to prepare for breastfeeding. this multiplication is an example of which adaptation?

physical

ben was golfing during a thunderstorm and was struck by lightning. the electric shock that damaged his cells is an example of which type of injury?

connective tissue

a scar is mostly made up of ______

reactive oxygen species

what is produced in the phagolysosome that helps to destroy bacteria and other ingested particles?

opsonins

complement protein C3b acts as an ______

damage to the membrane, damage to the nucleus and ATP depletion

which of the following happens because of increased cytosolic calcium?

VEGF family

growth factors involved in angiogenesis include the

a blood clot

Leroy cut his foot on a seashell which walking on a beach in Maine. It was a slicing wound, and the cut was not very deep. What will fill the wound first?

membrane attack complexes

complement proteins C5b, C6, C7, C8 and C9 together form what?

IL-6

which of the following cytokines is an important driver of the acute phase response?

hematopoietic stem cells

which of the following cells belong to the labile cell population?

cell membranes

what is metabolized in arachidonic acid metabolism? in other words what is the source of arichidonic acid metabolites?

death receptor

due to signals outside the cell, a signal pathway within the cell is activated. this triggers the _____ apoptosis pathway

vasodilation

the redness seen in inflammation is a direct result of ______

elimination of the cause and repair of the tissues

the final outcome of a successful inflammatory response will be _____

macrophages

the major cells involved in chronic granulomatous inflammation caused by tuberculosis are

rolling, adhesion, transmigration, chemotaxis

order of the steps of leukocyte migration out of the blood vessels to the site of a problem

rolling

without sialyl-Lewis X protein, which step of leukocyte recruitment would NOT occur, halting all other downstream steps?

1. microbes bind to phagocyte receptors
2. surrounding of the microbe by the phagocyte membrane
3. formation of phagolysosome
4. degradation of microbes by lysosomal enzymes

process of phagocytosis

ventral

pertaining to the belly

eosinophilia

affinity for red

toddlers ear infection that lasts three days

which is an example of an acute inflammatory event?

first intention

a thin, slicing cut like a paper cut will likely heal by ______

protein content

what is the difference between exudates and transudates?

liver, systemic effects of inflammtion

which of the following is the true source and function of acute phase proteins?

energy production

what is the function of the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells?

pathogenesis

Mary suffers from rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease. Her own immune system is attacking her joints, causing damage to the tissues and deformity of the bones. Over time, her mobility becomes limited due to the joint damage. The development of her disease is best described by the word

true

T/F: cellular structural changes always result in cellular functional changes

cell membrane

phospholipid bilayer with protein components

fatty acid metabolism

what is the function of peroxisomes?

modification and packaging of molecules

what is the function of the golgi apparatus?

mitochondria

which organelle has its own DNA, separate from nuclear DNA

acid burn

which of the following is an example of a chemical injury to the body?

toxins

one of the common culprits in cellular injury due to infection are ______ produced by bacteria

too much of a good thing (glucose, alc)

chemical damage to the cell can be caused by

they don't respond to stress as well

aging cells are more prone to suffer from injury because

Na+ and Ca++ pumps fail

mitochondrial damage leads to ATP depletion. lack of ATP causes which of the following problems?

lipid peroxidation, misfolding of proteins, DNA damage

oxidative stress caused by increased concentrations of reactive oxygen species leads to what

membrane damage occurs

when there is an increase in free Ca++ inside cells, what happens

caspases

which class of enzymes manages apoptosis?

necrosis

which type of cell death results in inflammation?

prolonged inflammation, severe inflammation, inappropriate inflammation

which of the following may make inflammation harmful to the body?

acute

A teenager has a sore throat. He has a fever and malaise that lasts two days. Then he is fine and goes back to school. Is this an acute or chronic inflammatory event?

neutrophil

which of the following cells is a phagocyte?

kill bacteria

if a cell doesn't make phagocyte oxidase, what CANT it do?

engulfment

second step in phagocytosis is

histamine

which is a vasoactive amine

complement

formation of membrane attack complexes is a function of which system?

CD4+ T cell

What type of cell will interact with the APC presenting gliadin in HLA class II molecules?

stimulate lymphocyte proliferation

what does IL-2 do?

antibody is made against gliadin antigens

a humoral response to gliadin occurs. this means that

plasma cells

antibodies to gliadin and certain enzymes are considered markers of celiac disease. when these antibodies are made, what type of cells do they come from?

the next immune response to gliadin will be faster

if the antibodies have been made because of T cell-dependent B cell activation, memory cells also form. this means that...

respond to presented antigen

CTLs infiltrate the intestinal tissue in celiac disease, releasing cytokines that cause damage. Interestingly, the CTLs are activated by IL-15 from the epithelial cells instead of in the normal way. What would be the normal way?

IgA

Which class of anti-gliadin antibody would be secreted into the mucosa?

isotype switching

The antibodies produced in celiac disease are IgG and IgA. Which of the following processes had to happen for this to be true?

a genetic component

Almost all people who have celiac disease carry HLA alleles HLA-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8. This is good evidence that celiac disease has what?

T cells

to which of the cells below do antigen presenting cells present antigen?

IL-2

which cytokine causes clonal expansion in adaptive immunity?

T helper cells

antibody class switching is influenced by cytokines released by what kind of cells?

DNA (or the nucleus)

autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematous usually target _____

reactive systemic amyloidosis

during the acute phase response, SAA levels increase to 1000x normal. this increases the risk of what type of amyloidosis?

CD4+ T cell

A B cell is activated and its proliferating clones become both plasma cells and memory cells. the B cell's interaction with what other cell helped to bring about this response?

Type III

hypersensitivity that involves deposition of immune complexes is classified as....

Allergy
Cytotoxic
Immune Complex
Delayed cell mediated
(ACID)

four types of hypersensitivity reactions

MHC I/ MHC II

which cell surface molecules present antigen?