Myers Unit 6: Learning (unit 4)

learning

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to stimulus

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and it’s consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Classical conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipant events. Produce respondent behavior

ex: we learn that a flash of lighting signals a crack of thunder, so when we see lightning we brace ourselves for that loud booming sound

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. Produced by classical conditioning.

Operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment producing consequences

produced by operant associations

Operant conditioning

We learn to associate a response (our behavior) and it’s consequence, this we learn to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad ones

Produce operant behaviors

Neural stimuli (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that’s elicits no response before conditioning

example: in an experiment, Pavlov sounded a tone before giving a dog food. After several pairing of sounding that tone before food, the dog began associating the tone with the deliverance of food. The tone would be the neural stimulus, as before conditioning, it had nothing to do with food.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in the mouth).

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers and unconditioned response

Example: The food that triggers a dogs salivary reflex is an unconditioned stimulus (while the food is an unconditioned response)

Ivan Pavlov

Explored the phenomenon of classical conditioning

Showed us:

(1) many responses to many stimuli can be classically conditioned in many organisms

(2) showed us how a process such as learning can be studied

dog man

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neural stimulus.

For example

an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second order conditioning)

In simpler terms:

Phase 1

1. Food = salivating (US and UR)

2. Tone = food, (NS = US)

3. Tone = salivating (CS = CR)

Phase 2

1. Bell = Tone (NS2 = CS)

2. Bell = Salivating (CS2 = CR)

Basically taking a new neutral stimulus and conditioning it to predict an already conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Example: a tone sounds before the arrival of food triggering a dogs salivation response. The tone continuously sounds with no arrival of food making the dog salivate less and less after hearing the sound (extinction). After waiting several hours, the tone sounds again and the dog salivates. This reappearance of the dogs conditioned response is called spontaneous recovery

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other similar situations).

Example: A dog conditioned to salivate when rubbed will also drool a bit when scratched or when touched on a different body part

Example 2: when shown a picture of dog feces you will show some sign of disgust, when shown a picture of fudge (resembling the feces) right after, you will also show a similar disgust

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced).

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Edward L. Thorndike

Law of Effect

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer ; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Increases likelihood the behavior will continue

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviors toward closer and closer approximations (basically training)

Example:

Imagine you want to teach your dog to "sit" but your dog doesn't know this command.

1. Initial behavior: Start by looking for any behavior that is remotely similar to sitting. It could be your dog lowering its rear end slightly, crouching, or any other behavior that is a small step toward sitting.

2. Reinforcement: When your dog exhibits this initial behavior, immediately reward it with praise and a treat. This reinforces the idea that this specific action is a good one.

3. Raise the criteria: Over time, you increase the criteria by only rewarding behaviors that are closer to sitting. For example, if your dog initially crouched slightly, you might only reward when it crouches a bit more, and then a bit more until it's a full sit.

4. Consistency: Be consistent in rewarding the improved behaviors, and ignore behaviors that don't meet the criteria you've set.

5. Shape until success: Continue this process, gradually shaping the behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations to sitting, until your dog fully understands and consistently performs the "sit" command.’

a gradual and effective way to reach a desired behavior when the behavior you want isn't present initially.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Example: Red Traffic Light

We know that when we see a red traffic light we are supposed to stop, as opposed to a green traffic light which cues us to go. We know if we stop at that light (perform a specific behavior) we will be rewarded (not given a ticket). Give us cues about what responses are appropriate and the likely consequences of those responses.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens that response. (Not a punishment)

primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need

B. F Skinner

studied Operant Conditioning, developed a behavioral technology revealing principles of behavioral control (operant chamber)

rat man

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing that desired response every time it occurs

(fixed ratio and fixed interval schedules)

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does a continuous reinforcement

(variable ratio schedules, variable interval schedules)

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Example: Buy 10 big macs get 1 free

Big Bertha really wants that free big mac and she knows exactly when she’ll get it. She comes to McDonalds everyday, multiple times a day even buying those big macs.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable amount of responses

Example: Slot Machine

You don’t know when you’ll win, so you keep putting in those coins. Now you’re broke and sad.

Important Thing to Note:

You will only win if you put the coin in. The amount of time passed does not matter.

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has been elapsed

Example: Happy hour

You know exactly when that big mac is about to be 1$. If you’re extra fat you have it on schedule, in your reminders even.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Example: Social Media

You don’t know when your crush will view you story so you keep checking your phone in hope.

Important thing to note:

This has nothing to do with your behavior! It does not matter if you check your phone 2 times or 100 times, it is a waiting game!!

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have a survival value

Example: Taste Aversion

Imagine you are a person who has never tried a particular type of food, let's say a durian fruit. You decide to try it for the first time, and shortly after eating it, you become very ill with food poisoning. As a result, you experience nausea, vomiting, and discomfort.

After the food poisoning incident, even the thought of durian fruit or encountering its odor can trigger a strong aversive response. You may feel nauseous or experience a sense of revulsion, which makes you avoid durian in the future.

associating certain tastes with negative experiences is a survival mechanism. It helps organisms quickly learn to avoid potentially harmful substances and increases the likelihood of their survival.

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Example:

Suppose you want to train a dog to balance a ball on its nose. You start by using positive reinforcement, such as giving the dog a treat, every time it successfully balances the ball. Over time, the dog learns to associate balancing the ball with receiving a reward.

However, the dog's natural instincts may interfere with this learned behavior:

1. The dog may become more interested in trying to play with or chew the ball (instinctual behaviors associated with playing or chewing) rather than keeping it balanced on its nose.

2. It may start shaking its head to get the ball off its nose (a natural response to discomfort) instead of keeping it still.

3. The dog's innate tendencies related to playing and shaking its head might make it challenging to maintain the behavior of balancing the ball on its nose.

the dog's instinctive behaviors, like playing and shaking the head, can disrupt the learned behavior of balancing the ball, illustrating the concept of instinctive drift.

This demonstrates that an animal's natural instincts can sometimes override the behaviors it has been trained to perform.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of ones environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solution

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for ones own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

“tell me the problem so I can fix it”

More common in men

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

“I don’t want you to fix the problem I just want to cry about it for a few minutes”

more common in women

personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

self control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long term rewards

John B Watson

Studied and named behaviorism

Established that specific fears could be conditioned by traumatizing little Albert

Experiment:

1. Little Albert is scared of loud noise, but not rats

2. Watson presents a rat

3. Whenever Little Albert gets close to the rat they strike a metal hammer against a steel bar right next to his head

4. Little Albert is now not only afraid of rats, but rabbits, dogs and sealskin coats

fuck dem kidss

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Example:

When over dramatically smiling at a baby they’ll start smiling back, even though you’re not really funny.

observational learning

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.