Studied by 1 person
Learning
the process of aquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
What does it mean that we learn by association?
Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus
Habituation example
a new ringtone can be distracting at first — slowly you start to pay less attention to it
Associative Learning
Learning that certain events occur together
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning
in classical conditioning we learn to associate two stimuli and anticipate events
in operant conditioning we associate our behavior with it’s consequence
Cognitive Learning
the aquisition of mental information
by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli
as a result the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus
Person associated with classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment
when the dog heard the sound of the tone it started drooling in anticipation of food
Behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
Most research psychologists today agree with (1-objective science) but not with (2-without reference to mental processes)
Psychologist associated with behaviorism
John B. Watson
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers an unconditioned response
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) in Pavlov’s Dogs
food
Unconditioned Response (UR)
an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned Response (US) in Pavlov’s Dogs
drooling/salivating
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that elicts no response before conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (NS) in Pavlov’s Dogs
tone, buzzer, light, touch on the leg, sight of circle
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in Pavlov’s Dogs
a previously meaningless tone that now triggers salivation
Conditioned Response (CR)
a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
Conditioned Response (CR) in Pavlov’s Dogs
salivation in response to the tone
Classical conditioning example
Food cravings
we associate specific foods with feel good sensations making dieting hard
acquisition
classical conditioning - the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response
operant conditioning - the strengthening of a reinforced response
biological reason that animals and humans can be conditioned
because it helps them prepare for good or bad events
Higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus (Also called second-order conditioning)
Higher-order conditioning example
an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food learns that light predicts the tone and begins responding to the light alone
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response
classical conditioning - an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
operant conditioning - a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
classical conditioning - the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to provoke similar responses
operant conditioning - occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations
Discrimination
classical conditioning - the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
operant conditioning - the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced
Why is Pavlov’s work still important?
many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms
showed us how a process such as learning can be
studied objectively
Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment
Showed how specific fears are conditioned with a baby
Presented a rat and struck a hammer (creating a loud sound the baby was afraid of). After many repeats, the baby cried at the sight of the rat & similar animals
Operant Conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
Person associated with operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner
Law of effect
behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely
behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Person who created Law of Effect
Edward L. Thorndike
Skinner Box (aka operant chamber)
in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Reinforcement
any event that strenghtens the behavior it follows
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
clapping as a person gets closer to the desired goal vs. stopping when they are farther and continuing only when they get closer
Discriminative stimulus
a specific stimulus that prompts a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
Discriminative stimulus example
pigeons pecking only after seeing a human face, but not after seeing other images
difference between positive and negative reinforcement
both strenghten responses but positive reinforcement presents a pleasurable stimulus and negative reinforcement removes something negative
Positive Reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Positive Reinforcement Example
pay someone for work that they have done
Negative Reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli
Negative Reinforcement Examples
hitting snooze to silence an annoying alarm
Primary Reinforcer
a naturally reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Primary Reinforcer Example
having a painful headache go away
Secondary Reinforcers (aka Conditioned Reinforcers)
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
Secondary Reinforcer Example
Money
desire for money comes from desire for food, then hunger makes people money hungry
Reinforcement Schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
reinforcing a response every time it occurs
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule Example
every time a child raises their hand; the teacher gives them a sticker
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time
results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule Example
sales people do not make a sale with every pitch; they make a sale once in a while
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
reinforcing a response after a specified number of responses
Every so many
Fixed-Ratio Schedule Example
coffee shops reward us with a free drink after 10 purchases
Variable-Ratio Schedule
reinforcing a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Variable-Ratio Schedule Example
claw machines; getting a prize after an unpredictable number of times
Fixed Interval Schedule
reinforcing a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Every so often
Fixed Interval Schedule Example
people check the mail more frequently as the time for it to arrive approaches
Variable Interval Schedule
reinforcing a response at unpredictable time intervals
Unpredictably often
Variable Interval Schedule Example
recieving a message after constantly checking your phone at random times
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
Difference between reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement increases the behavior that it follows while punishment decreases the behavior that it follows
Positive Punishment
impose an aversive stimulus
Positive Punishment Example
give a traffic ticket for speeding
Negative Punishment
Withdraw a rewarding stimulus
Negative Punishment Example
Take away a misbehaving teen’s driving privileges
Why are environments not the whole story to conditioning?
An animal’s capacity for conditioning is constrained by it’s biology, predispositions prepare it to learn the associations
preparedness
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
What did John Garcia find in his studies of taste aversion?
When rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation they developed a conditioned taste aversion to the substance but not the sight or sound associated with it
An example of how biological constraits predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
it’s possible to condition a hamster to dig or rear up with a food reinforcer but it’s not possible to condition it to wash it’s face or to do other actions that aren’t associated with food
What did Rescorla & Wagner show about conditioning?
an animal can learn the predictability of an event
Tolman’s Cognitive Map
a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
instrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior for the sake of doing it while extrinsic behavior is the desire to perform a behavior to recieve promised rewards or to avoid punishment (internal vs. external)
Problem-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor
Emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction
Learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
External locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate
External locus of control example
getting a good job depends on being at the right place at the right time
Internal locus of control
the perception that we control our own fate
Internal locus of control example
getting a job because you worked hard for it
Self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
What do you need to have better self control?
attention and energy. With frequent practice in overcoming unwanted urges you can strenghten self-control and imporve self-management (anger, dishonesty, impulsive spending)
Observational Learning
learning by observing others (Also called social learning)
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Person associated with observational learning
Albert Bandura
Summarize Bandura’s famous Bobo Doll experiment
A child is put in a room with an Adult. After 10 mins the adult lashes out at an inflatable bobo doll. The child is then taken to a room with toys but quickly taken to another room because they are told these toys are being saved for good children. The child sees a bobo doll in the room and lashes out at the bobo doll, generally repeating the behavior seen in the adult.
How observational learning works: Mirror Neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
What is the theory of mind
children’s brains do enable their empathy and their ability to infer another’s mental state
Prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
When are models most effective?
when their actions and words are consistent
To encourage children to read, read to them and surround them with books and people who read
