psych unit 7 and review

Developmental Psychology

the study of how people grow and change throughout their lifespan, including physical, cognitive, and social development.

Nature and Nurture

the relationship between genetic inheritance and environmental factors in shaping individual development.

Continuity and stages

refers to the debate whether development is a gradual, continuous process or a series of distinct stages. It examines how changes in behavior and thinking occur across different periods of life.

Stability and Change

refers to the debate regarding whether personality traits and behaviors remain consistent over time or change as individuals grow and develop.

Teratogens

substances that can cause developmental malformations in embryos or fetuses.

Maternal Illnesses

conditions during pregnancy that can adversely affect fetal development.

Genetic Mutations

are changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to alterations in genes and potentially cause genetic disorders.

Maturation

the process of biological growth and development that occurs in a predictable sequence and influences behavior.

Rooting

A reflex in infants that causes them to turn their head and open their mouth when their cheek is stroked, facilitating breastfeeding.

Visual Cliff

a laboratory device that tests depth perception in infants by having them perceive a drop-off.

Jean Piaget

A Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children, which describes how children acquire knowledge through stages.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks or concepts that help organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

The process of integrating new information into existing schemas, allowing individuals to understand new experiences in terms of their current knowledge.

Accommodation

The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information. This allows for a more accurate understanding of experiences that do not fit into existing frameworks.

Sensorimotor stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring from birth to about 2 years old, where infants learn about the world through their senses and actions.

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed, typically developing in infants around 8 to 12 months of age.

Stranger anxiety

The fear or distress infants show when they encounter unfamiliar people, usually emerging around 8 to 12 months of age.

Preoperational 

The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring from about 2 to 7 years old, characterized by the emergence of language, symbolic thinking, and egocentrism.

Egocentrism

A cognitive bias prevalent in the preoperational stage where a child is unable to see a situation from another person's perspective, believing that everyone shares their thoughts and feelings.

Concrete operational

The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, occurring from about 7 to 11 years old, characterized by the development of logical thought and the ability to understand conservation and perspective-taking.

Conservation

The understanding that quantity or amount remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance, typically developed during the concrete operational stage.

Mental operations

A type of cognitive process involved in thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving, typically developed during the concrete operational stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own, which develops in early childhood.

Formal operational 

stage of cognitive development where individuals can think abstractly, reason logically, and use deductive reasoning.

Abstract Logic

The use of reasoning to form conclusions based on abstract principles rather than concrete objects or experiences.

Lev Vygotsky

A Russian psychologist who emphasized the importance of social interaction and culture in cognitive development, proposing the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development.

Scaffolding

A teaching method that provides support to students as they develop new skills or concepts, gradually removing assistance as students become more proficient.

Zone of Proximal Development

The range of tasks that a learner can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable other, but not yet independently. It highlights the potential for cognitive development through guided interaction.

Stranger anxiety

The fear and apprehension children exhibit when encountering strangers, typically observed in infants and toddlers as part of their emotional development.

Attachment

A deep, emotional bond that forms between a child and their caregiver, which influences the child's social, emotional, and cognitive development.

Critical period

A crucial time in development during which certain skills or behaviors must be acquired, or the individual may struggle to develop these capabilities later.

Imprinting

A rapid and irreversible type of learning that occurs in certain animals, typically during a specific early life phase, where they form attachments to the first moving object they encounter, often their caregiver.

Strange situation experiment

Ainsworth's procedure to assess attachment styles in infants by observing their reactions to separations and reunions with their caregiver.

Secure attachment

A strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver characterized by trust, comfort, and security. Children with secure attachment are typically more resilient and better at exploring their environment.

Insecure attachment

A type of attachment characterized by anxiety, avoidance, or ambivalence in relationships with caregivers. Children with insecure attachment may struggle with trust and tend to have difficulties in exploring their surroundings.

Mary Ainsworth

A developmental psychologist known for her work on attachment theory and the Strange Situation experiment, which assessed how infants bond with their caregivers.

Anxious Attachment

A type of insecure attachment where individuals exhibit heightened anxiety regarding relationships. They may crave closeness but simultaneously fear rejection or abandonment.

Avoidant Attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by a reluctance to rely on others, often leading individuals to maintain emotional distance in relationships. Avoidantly attached individuals tend to prioritize independence over intimacy.

Temperament

The innate personality characteristics of an individual, influencing their behavior and emotional responses from an early age. It includes traits such as mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity.

Separation anxiety

A developmental stage characterized by excessive fear or worry when separated from primary caregivers, often seen in children.

Disorganized attachment

A type of insecure attachment marked by a lack of a clear coping strategy in stressful situations, often resulting from inconsistent or erratic caregiving. Disorganized attachment can lead to confusion and anxiety in relationships.

Authoritarian

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, often imposing strict rules and expecting obedience without much warmth or emotional support.

Permissive

A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and low demands, where parents are lenient and allow considerable freedom, often avoiding setting firm boundaries.

Authoritative

A parenting style that combines high demands with high responsiveness, promoting independence while also providing support and guidance, resulting in well-adjusted children.

Adolescence v. Puberty

Adolescence refers to the psychological and social transition from childhood to adulthood, while puberty is the biological process of physical maturation and sexual development.

Primary sex characteristics

The physical features directly involved in reproduction, such as the ovaries and testes.

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical traits that develop during puberty, such as breast development and facial hair, but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation, signifying the onset of female reproductive capability.

Spermarche

The first occurrence of ejaculation in males, marking the onset of male reproductive capability.

Psychosocial development

The process in which individuals evolve and refine their social and emotional skills throughout their lifespan, influencing personality and behavior.

Trust vs mistrust

The first stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring in infancy, where a child learns to trust or mistrust their caregivers based on their experiences with them.

Autonomy vs doubt

The second stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring in early childhood, where children learn to develop autonomy and self-control or experience doubt in their abilities.

Initiative vs guilt

The third stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring in preschool-aged children, where they learn to initiate activities and assert control over their environment, leading to either a sense of initiative or feelings of guilt for overstepping boundaries.

Competence vs inferiority(Industry vs shame)

The fourth stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring during school age, where children develop a sense of competence through mastering tasks and skills, or feel inferior if they perceive themselves as unable to succeed.

Identity vs role confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring during adolescence, where individuals explore their personal identity and sense of self while facing the challenge of role confusion and uncertainty about their future.

Intimacy vs isolation

The sixth stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring in young adulthood, where individuals seek to form intimate relationships and connections with others, balancing the potential for loneliness and isolation.

Generativity vs stagnation

The seventh stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring during middle adulthood, where individuals strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them, leading to feelings of contribution and accomplishment, or experience stagnation and self-absorption.

Integrity vs despair

The eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory, occurring in late adulthood, where individuals reflect on their lives, finding sense of fulfillment and integrity or experiencing despair over unachieved goals.

Ecological Systems Theory

A framework developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that describes the different layers of environment, from immediate family and peers to broader societal influences, affecting individual development.

Microsystem

The immediate environment in which a person lives, including family, friends, and school, that directly influences their development.

Mesosystem

The interactions between different microsystems, such as how family life affects school experiences, highlighting the connections and relationships among various environments in an individual's life.

Exosystem

The wider social systems that indirectly influence an individual, such as a parent's workplace or community services, affecting development through the interactions of those in the microsystem.

Macrosystem

The overarching cultural and societal context that influences an individual's development, including societal norms, values, and laws.

Chronosystem

The dimension of time that encompasses the transitions and shifts in an individual's life and how these changes interact with other environmental systems, influencing development across the lifespan.

Identity

The understanding of oneself as a distinct individual, shaped by various factors including personal experiences, social interactions, and cultural influences.

Achievement (of Identity) 

The process through which an individual explores and commits to various roles, values, and beliefs, ultimately forming a coherent sense of self.

Diffusion (of Identity)

The state in which an individual has not yet explored or committed to any specific identity, often resulting in a lack of direction and unclear self-concept.

Foreclosure (of Identity) 

The state where an individual commits to an identity without exploring other options, often adopting roles or values dictated by parents or society.

Moratorium (of Identity) 

The period during which an individual explores various identities and options but has not yet made a commitment to any specific identity.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) 

Events or situations during childhood that can lead to negative physical and mental health outcomes later in life, including abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.

Emerging adulthood

A developmental stage typically ranging from ages 18 to 25, where individuals explore personal and professional identities, often characterized by independence from parents, further education, and establishing intimate relationships.

Menopause

The natural biological process marking the end of a woman's menstrual cycles, typically occurring around age 50, characterized by a decrease in hormone production and the cessation of ovulation.

Cross sectional studies

Research methods that analyze data from a population at a specific point in time, allowing comparisons across different age groups.

Longitudinal studies

Research methods that collect data from the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, allowing researchers to observe changes and developments across different stages of life.

Social clock

Biopsychosocial perspective

A theoretical approach that integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to understand human development and behavior.

Cognitive perspective

An approach in psychology that emphasizes the role of mental processes, such as perception, memory, and problem-solving, in understanding behavior and emotional responses.

Free association

A therapeutic technique in psychoanalysis where patients express their thoughts and feelings spontaneously without censorship, revealing unconscious processes.

Regression

A defense mechanism in which individuals revert to earlier stages of development in response to stress or anxiety.

Self-actualizing tendencies

The inherent drive to realize one's full potential and capabilities, as described by humanistic psychology, particularly in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Independent and Dependent Variables

The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated in an experiment, while the dependent variable is the outcome or response measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Random selection

A sampling method where participants are chosen randomly from a population, ensuring that every individual has an equal chance of being selected, which is important for the validity of an experiment.

Correlational research

A research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them. It helps identify patterns but does not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Placebo effect

A phenomenon in which individuals experience a perceived improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic effect, often due to their beliefs or expectations.

Replication 

The process of repeating a research study to determine whether the original findings can be consistently reproduced, which helps verify the results and increase confidence in the research conclusions.

Agonists/Antagonists

Agonists are substances that enhance the effect of neurotransmitters, while antagonists inhibit their action, influencing various physiological processes.

Reflex

An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus that does not require conscious thought, often serving as a protective mechanism.

Hippocampus

A brain structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation, essential for learning and retaining information.

Circadian Rhythm

The physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a daily cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness, influencing sleep-wake patterns and other bodily functions.

Dichromatism

A type of color vision deficiency where a person can only perceive two colors instead of the usual three, often resulting in difficulty distinguishing between certain colors.

Gestalt principles

Theories in psychology that explain how individuals perceive objects as organized patterns and unified wholes, rather than as separate components.

Retinal disparity

The difference in images received by each eye due to their spatial separation, which aids in depth perception.

Sound localization

The process by which the position of a sound source is determined based on the differences in the sound's arrival time and intensity at each ear.

Sensory interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another; for example, the effect of taste on smell when eating.

Functional fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used, hindering problem-solving and creative thinking.

Gambler’s fallacy

The mistaken belief that past random events can influence the outcomes of future random events, such as believing a win is due after a series of losses in gambling.

Framing

The way information is presented or phrased, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments. This can lead to different interpretations of the same information based on its context.

Phonemes/morphemes

The smallest units of sound in a language (phonemes) or the smallest meaning-carrying units of language (morphemes), each playing a crucial role in linguistic structure.

Language development (receptive, expressive, babbling, one-word, two-word)

The process through which individuals acquire the ability to understand and communicate language, encompassing stages such as babbling, one-word and two-word speech, and the development of both receptive and expressive language skills.