Research Methods Overview

These flashcards cover key concepts in research methods, providing definitions for important terms and concepts.

Empiricism →

Gaining knowledge through systematic observation and sensory experience, not intuition or feelings.

Theory–data cycle →

Theory → hypothesis → research design → data → results → revise theory.

Theory →

A broad explanation of relationships between constructs.

Hypothesis →

A specific, testable prediction about variables.

Data →

Observations collected to test hypotheses.

Pre-registration→

Writing hypotheses and methods before data collection to reduce bias.

Falsifiability →

A theory must be able to be proven wrong.

Parsimony →

The simplest explanation with the fewest assumptions is preferred.

Tautology →

A statement that is true by definition and does not advance knowledge.

Can science prove hypotheses? →

No, science supports or is consistent with hypotheses.

Replication →

Repeating a study to see if results are consistent.

Meta-analysis →

A statistical analysis combining results from many studies.

Basic research→

Aims to expand general knowledge.

• Applied research → Aims to solve practical problems.

* **Translational research** → Bridges basic and applied research.

* **Pseudoscience** → Claims that appear scientific but are not falsifiable or empirically tested.

* **Non-scientific sources** → Personal experience, intuition, and authority.

* **Problem with personal experience** → No comparison group, confounds, focus on outliers.

* **Confound** → An alternative explanation for an outcome.

* **Outlier** → An extreme or unusual data point.

* **Availability heuristic** → Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

* **Confirmation bias** → Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.

* **Present/Present bias** → Remembering when both an action and outcome occur together.

* **Bias blind spot** → Believing others are biased but you are not.

* **Scientific sources** → Empirical articles, reviews, meta-analyses, books.

* **Empirical article sections** → Abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references.

* **PsycINFO** → Curated psychology database.

* **Google Scholar** → Broad database with less filtering.

* **Impact factor** → How often articles in a journal are cited.

* **Backward reference search** → Looking at sources cited by an article.

* **Forward reference search** → Looking at articles that cite a study.

* **Operationalization** → Defining a variable in measurable terms.

* **Intellectual humility** → Awareness that one’s beliefs may be wrong.

* **Variable** → Anything that can vary and be measured.

* **Independent variable (IV)** → The predictor or assumed cause.

* **Dependent variable (DV)** → The outcome or assumed effect.

* **Measured variable** → A variable that is observed, not controlled.

* **Manipulated variable** → A variable the researcher controls.

* **Conceptual variable** → The abstract idea (construct).

* **Operational variable** → The specific way a construct is measured.

* **Frequency claim** → Describes how common or frequent something is.

* **Association claim** → States that two variables are related.

* **Causal claim** → States that one variable causes changes in another.

* **Positive association** → High goes with high, low goes with low.

* **Negative association** → High goes with low, low goes with high.

* **Zero association** → No relationship between variables.

* **Construct validity** → Are we measuring what we intend to measure?

* **External validity** → Can results generalize to other populations or settings?

* **Statistical validity** → Are results precise and reliable?

* **Confidence interval** → A range where the true population value likely falls.

* **Internal validity** → Are alternative explanations ruled out?

* **Covariance** → Variables change together.

* **Directionality** → The cause precedes the effect in time.

* **Little Albert study issue** → No informed consent and long-term harm.

* **Nuremberg Code** → Ethical guidelines emphasizing voluntary participation.

* **Milgram experiment issue** → High stress and incomplete debriefing.

* **Belmont Report principles** → Respect for persons, justice, beneficence.

* **Informed consent includes** → Purpose, risks, benefits, confidentiality, right to withdraw.

* **Deception allowed when** → Necessary and followed by debriefing.