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Biology  - Cell Division, Cancer,  Meiosis


Exploring Cell Divison

  • Responsible for growth

  • Humans start with one cell and then cells divide at a rapid pace during pregnancy and continue after birth

  • Is most rapid during childhood and slows down during adulthood

Cell division

  • After 5 divisions, the number of cells would be 32. Because 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32, this can also be expressed as 25. After 10 divisions, the number of cells would be 1024, or 210

  • Basic terms

    • DNA - particularly for packaging and distribution

    • Chromosome - once the cell is duplicated

    • Chromatids - 2 of these make up the “X”

    • Centromere - used to hold together the chromatids

  • Chromosomes

    • Different organisms have different amounts

    • Humans have 46

    • Chimpanzees have 48

    • Ducks have 80

    • Ferns have 1262

    • The number of chromosomes doesn’t determine the complexity

    • During cell division, they will split apart so each of the daughter cells gets one copy

    • When a cell has a full complement of chromosomes it is called diploid

    • Sperm and egg cell contain only half the number of chromosomes and are called haploid

Examining the Cell Cycle and Mitosis

  • The sequence of events from one division to the next is called the cell cycle

  • Cell cycle in 3 phases

    • Interphase

      • Where prepares to undergo cell division

      • Longest stage in the cell cycle

      • Cell grows and accumulates nutrients need for division

    • Mitosis

      • Dividing genetic material

      • Every somatic cell undergoes this process

      • Except for reproductive cells which undergo meiosis

  • 3 purposes for mitosis

  • GROWTH: Somatic cells undergo the process of mitosis in order to make more cells, which allows for the overall growth of the organism. Cells cannot simply grow in size; the distance of the nucleus from all parts of the cytoplasm must be kept small for efficient communication.

  • REPAIR: Mitosis occurs in order to repair damaged tissue by replacing cells. If an organism receives a cut or scrape or a sunburn, cellular division will occur to heal the skin.

  • ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: In single-celled organisms, mitosis is a way to reproduce.

  • Prophase

    • Sister chromatids join to form chromosomes and the intersection of those is called a centromere

    • chromosomes condense and become visible

    • nuclear membrane begins to dissolve

    • centrioles used to move the chromosomes, migrate towards opposite ends of the cell (“the poles”)

    • spindle fibres (cellular “tow ropes”) begin to form from the centrioles

  • Metaphase

    • Chromosomes line up in the  equator (middle) of cell

    • Single fibres connect to the centromeres of chromosomes

  • Anaphase

    • Simple fibres begin to retract

    • This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pull them apart

    • Two halves move to opposite sides of the cell

  • Telophase

    • chromatids reach the opposite pole

    • genetic material begins to re-condense

    • a nuclear membrane begins to form around each set of chromatids

    • cell membrane begins to pinch and form two cells

    • the process of cytokinesis begins


  • Cytokinesis

    • Final phase and it divides the cytoplasm into two producing two fully independent separate cells

    • During cytokinesis in animal cells, the membrane pinches inward, forming a wall between the two halves

    • Eventually, this wall closes up, dividing the cell into two equal parts

    • Plants undergo a slightly different process, building up a new cell wall between the two halves of the nearly divided cell

Understanding Cancer

  • Sometimes DNA can mutate leading to uncontrolled cell growth (cancer)

  • Most cells divide through communication with similar cells, but cancer cells divide on their own, regardless of what other cells are doing around them

  • Cancer cells divide at a faster rate than normal cells.

  • Your body has specialized cells called immune cells that detect and destroy bacteria and some kinds of cancer cells

  • Unfortunately, sometimes your immune cells are unable to detect and destroy cancer cells because they are “camouflaged” as normal cells

  • Tumours are mass of cancer cells that grow and divide

  • Some are benign (non-harmful)

  • If cancer cells dislodge from the original tumour site, cancer can spread throughout the body through the circulatory or lymphatic systems and create new cancer colonies (a process called metastasis)

  • In this case, the tumour is a harmful or malignant tumour. If caught early enough this cancer may be able to be treated

Investigating Meiosis and Possible Errors

  • The process of mitosis produces identical copies of the parent cell, but sometimes an identical copy is not desirable

  • Organisms that reproduce sexually, like humans, combine the genetic material of two parents to produce an offspring

  • If each parent were to give a diploid cell (containing 2n chromosomes) to the offspring, then the offspring would start out with 4n (2n + 2n) chromosomes

  • When that generation grew up and reproduced, their offspring would have 8n

  • In only a few generations, the number of chromosomes in the cells would be in the trillions, and the cell would have to be as big as a house just to hold it all

  • Clearly, this is not desirable, so reproductive cells undergo a process of division that does not duplicate the genetic material, but instead halves it to create sex cells or gametic cells, this process is called meiosis

  • In males the process is referred to as spermatogenesis (the formation of sperm cells); in females, the process is referred to as oogenesis (the formation of egg cells)

Meiosis

  • Gametic cells must be haploid; that’s to say, they must have half the number of chromosomes as somatic cells

  • In humans, this means that one sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes and one egg cell contains 23 chromosomes

  • In order to create a haploid cell, the process of meiosis involves two divisions rather than just one

  • As in mitosis, there is an interphase phase prior to meiosis in which the genetic information duplicates

Errors in cell division

  • If errors occur during the division of a somatic cell, such as a skin cell or a liver cell, it may not cause much harm because there are many other cells of the same type to keep the organism functioning properly

  • However, if something goes wrong in a reproductive cell during meiosis, the resulting fertilized egg could contain an improper amount of genetic material

  • Since every subsequent somatic cell is a descendent of that original fertilized egg, each will contain the same mistake

  • This could inhibit the organism from functioning properly

  • The failure of chromosomes to divide correctly during meiosis is called nondisjunction

  • Cells that lack genetic information or have too much information may not function properly

DP

Biology  - Cell Division, Cancer,  Meiosis


Exploring Cell Divison

  • Responsible for growth

  • Humans start with one cell and then cells divide at a rapid pace during pregnancy and continue after birth

  • Is most rapid during childhood and slows down during adulthood

Cell division

  • After 5 divisions, the number of cells would be 32. Because 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32, this can also be expressed as 25. After 10 divisions, the number of cells would be 1024, or 210

  • Basic terms

    • DNA - particularly for packaging and distribution

    • Chromosome - once the cell is duplicated

    • Chromatids - 2 of these make up the “X”

    • Centromere - used to hold together the chromatids

  • Chromosomes

    • Different organisms have different amounts

    • Humans have 46

    • Chimpanzees have 48

    • Ducks have 80

    • Ferns have 1262

    • The number of chromosomes doesn’t determine the complexity

    • During cell division, they will split apart so each of the daughter cells gets one copy

    • When a cell has a full complement of chromosomes it is called diploid

    • Sperm and egg cell contain only half the number of chromosomes and are called haploid

Examining the Cell Cycle and Mitosis

  • The sequence of events from one division to the next is called the cell cycle

  • Cell cycle in 3 phases

    • Interphase

      • Where prepares to undergo cell division

      • Longest stage in the cell cycle

      • Cell grows and accumulates nutrients need for division

    • Mitosis

      • Dividing genetic material

      • Every somatic cell undergoes this process

      • Except for reproductive cells which undergo meiosis

  • 3 purposes for mitosis

  • GROWTH: Somatic cells undergo the process of mitosis in order to make more cells, which allows for the overall growth of the organism. Cells cannot simply grow in size; the distance of the nucleus from all parts of the cytoplasm must be kept small for efficient communication.

  • REPAIR: Mitosis occurs in order to repair damaged tissue by replacing cells. If an organism receives a cut or scrape or a sunburn, cellular division will occur to heal the skin.

  • ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: In single-celled organisms, mitosis is a way to reproduce.

  • Prophase

    • Sister chromatids join to form chromosomes and the intersection of those is called a centromere

    • chromosomes condense and become visible

    • nuclear membrane begins to dissolve

    • centrioles used to move the chromosomes, migrate towards opposite ends of the cell (“the poles”)

    • spindle fibres (cellular “tow ropes”) begin to form from the centrioles

  • Metaphase

    • Chromosomes line up in the  equator (middle) of cell

    • Single fibres connect to the centromeres of chromosomes

  • Anaphase

    • Simple fibres begin to retract

    • This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pull them apart

    • Two halves move to opposite sides of the cell

  • Telophase

    • chromatids reach the opposite pole

    • genetic material begins to re-condense

    • a nuclear membrane begins to form around each set of chromatids

    • cell membrane begins to pinch and form two cells

    • the process of cytokinesis begins


  • Cytokinesis

    • Final phase and it divides the cytoplasm into two producing two fully independent separate cells

    • During cytokinesis in animal cells, the membrane pinches inward, forming a wall between the two halves

    • Eventually, this wall closes up, dividing the cell into two equal parts

    • Plants undergo a slightly different process, building up a new cell wall between the two halves of the nearly divided cell

Understanding Cancer

  • Sometimes DNA can mutate leading to uncontrolled cell growth (cancer)

  • Most cells divide through communication with similar cells, but cancer cells divide on their own, regardless of what other cells are doing around them

  • Cancer cells divide at a faster rate than normal cells.

  • Your body has specialized cells called immune cells that detect and destroy bacteria and some kinds of cancer cells

  • Unfortunately, sometimes your immune cells are unable to detect and destroy cancer cells because they are “camouflaged” as normal cells

  • Tumours are mass of cancer cells that grow and divide

  • Some are benign (non-harmful)

  • If cancer cells dislodge from the original tumour site, cancer can spread throughout the body through the circulatory or lymphatic systems and create new cancer colonies (a process called metastasis)

  • In this case, the tumour is a harmful or malignant tumour. If caught early enough this cancer may be able to be treated

Investigating Meiosis and Possible Errors

  • The process of mitosis produces identical copies of the parent cell, but sometimes an identical copy is not desirable

  • Organisms that reproduce sexually, like humans, combine the genetic material of two parents to produce an offspring

  • If each parent were to give a diploid cell (containing 2n chromosomes) to the offspring, then the offspring would start out with 4n (2n + 2n) chromosomes

  • When that generation grew up and reproduced, their offspring would have 8n

  • In only a few generations, the number of chromosomes in the cells would be in the trillions, and the cell would have to be as big as a house just to hold it all

  • Clearly, this is not desirable, so reproductive cells undergo a process of division that does not duplicate the genetic material, but instead halves it to create sex cells or gametic cells, this process is called meiosis

  • In males the process is referred to as spermatogenesis (the formation of sperm cells); in females, the process is referred to as oogenesis (the formation of egg cells)

Meiosis

  • Gametic cells must be haploid; that’s to say, they must have half the number of chromosomes as somatic cells

  • In humans, this means that one sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes and one egg cell contains 23 chromosomes

  • In order to create a haploid cell, the process of meiosis involves two divisions rather than just one

  • As in mitosis, there is an interphase phase prior to meiosis in which the genetic information duplicates

Errors in cell division

  • If errors occur during the division of a somatic cell, such as a skin cell or a liver cell, it may not cause much harm because there are many other cells of the same type to keep the organism functioning properly

  • However, if something goes wrong in a reproductive cell during meiosis, the resulting fertilized egg could contain an improper amount of genetic material

  • Since every subsequent somatic cell is a descendent of that original fertilized egg, each will contain the same mistake

  • This could inhibit the organism from functioning properly

  • The failure of chromosomes to divide correctly during meiosis is called nondisjunction

  • Cells that lack genetic information or have too much information may not function properly

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