AP Psych Unit 2: Modules 2.3-2.7

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding storage and retrieval of information

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, such as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, such as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (multi-store model)

Made in 1968. Split up into sensory memory, short-term (working) memory, and long-term memory

short-term memory (STM)

the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used

long-term memory (LTM)

the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects' appearance and location in space

episodic buffer

a proposed component of working memory that integrates information from multiple sources into a unified memory.

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

retention that is independent of conscious recollection

mnemonic devices

techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving/testing, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

intermediate processing

stimulus is recognized and labeled

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

structural encoding

relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

phonemic encoding

emphasizes what a word sounds like

semantic encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Interleaving

switching between two different activities, helpful when studying

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

retrieval practice

the repeated retrieval of an item of information from memory

Metacognition

thinking about thinking; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Forgetting Curve

measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall or recognize across time, as proposed by Hermann Ebbinghaus

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

schemas

mental representation of an object, scene, or event, like how you picture a farm

interference theory

the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember

decay theory

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time