PSY

Drive Reduction Theory

the goal of motivated behavior is a reduction of a drive state

Homeostasis

Habits

Drive Induction Theory

reinforcement is a function of the degree of drive induced by a given reinforcer

Yerkes-Dodson Law

understand exactly the level of arousal that stimulates the most motivation of behavior

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Actualization, self-esteem needs, social needs, safety needs, physiological needs 

The idea that people are driven by many needs

Self-actualization

when someone has achieved their personal dreams and aspirations

Self Efficacy

the belief that one is capable of producing desired results

Performance Outcomes

Physiological Feedback

Vicarious Experiences

Verbal Persuasion 

Self Determination Theory

what factors have to be met to make someone motivated

Autonomy

Relatedness

Competence 

Pleasure principle

seek pleasure, avoid pain

Approach motivations

Avoid motivation

Escape from self hypothesis

the pain something is giving someone helps them distract from the larger issue they are worried about

Thrifty-gene hypothesis

evolution has favored those with efficient metabolism that maximize fat storage

Dopamine reward system

Environmental influences

Increased abundance of fast and processed foods

Widespread consumption of sugary, high-caloric soft drinks

Decline in exercise

Increase portion sizes 10

Sexual Strategies Theory

women and men have evolved distinct mating strategies due to different adaptive problems faced over the course of human history

Sexual Orientation

Homosexuality was once viewed as a mental illness

Biological factors

Hormones

Genes

Hypothalamus size

The Psychology of Love

Proximity

Similarity

Perceptions

Online Dating

Online dating sites aren’t very effective

Matching aptitudes are important, but other things are also important

Distorted self-perceptions

Attraction is not always clear

Need to Belong

Group belonging is natural

Lack of social contact causes emptiness and despair

Does misery love company?

Importance of goals

Specific

Challenging but attainable

Framed right

Performance goals

goals frames in term of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism

Mastery

goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills

Work Motivation

Emotions

An immediate and intense response to environmental changes or internal thoughts

Moods

Long-lasting, less intense emotional states

Discrete emotional approach

definitive specific categories of emotions

Dimensional approach

uses dimensions to make sense of emotions

Alexithymia

difficulty identifying and labeling emotions

Display Rules

Govern how and when people exhibit emotions

Socialization

Culture

Emotion work

expression of an emotion, often because of a role requirement, that a person doesn’t really feel

Duchenne Smile

Raising corners of the mouth, cheeks, and producing crow’s feet around the eyes

Muscles activated by the limbic system

Fake Smile

Raising the corners of the mouth.

Muscles activated by the motor cortex.

James-Lange theory

how we interpret the situation determines how we feel

Stimulus - Arousal - Emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

arousal and emotion are separate but occur together

Stimulus - arousal and emotion

Schacter - Singer Two Factor Theory

Cognitive appraisal of the situation influences how we feel

Stimulus - Arousal - Labe

Emotions and Lie Detector Tests

There is no physiological pattern of autonomic arousal that is specific to lying

Polygraph results are inadmissible in most courts, even though they’re still in use

What influences happiness?

Happiness set point

Life circumstances (adaptation)

Intentional activities

Misattribution of Arousal

Sometimes people misidentify the source of their arousal

Excitation transfer

residual arousal from one event is transferred to a new stimulus

Influence of Emotions

Influence perception

Interpersonal coordination

Affect-as-information

Strength model of self-control

self-control draws on a finite pool of resources. Repeated self-regulatory demands deplete these resources leading to loss of self-control

Emotions and Gender

There are no differences in how men and women feel everyday emotions, only how they express them.

Women are more likely to express most emotions than men

Men express anger more than women

Biopsychosocial Model

Biology

Social

Psychological

Biology

physical health, genetic vulnerabilities, drug effects

Social

peers, family Circumstances and relationships

Psychological

physical health, coping skills, social skills, family relationships, self-esteem, mental health

What is stress

A type of response that typically involves an unpleasant state

Uncertainty

Lack of control

Concern others will evaluate or treat us negatively

Distress

Negative events

Loss

Eustress

Positive events 

Life changes

Social readjustment scale

A scale that gives value to stressful events in a person's life

Daily Hassles

The frequency of daily hassles is a better predictor of both physical and psychological health than life change units

Job burnout

a general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism \n in relation to one’s job.

Operational stressors

stressors related to police activities

Organizational stressors

stressors related to the police institution/organization

General Adaptation System

Alarm Phase

Resistance Phase

Exhaustion Phase

Alarm Phase

the body mobilizes the sympathetic nervous system to meet an immediate threat

Resistance Phase

the body attempts to resist or cope with a stressor that cannot be avoided

Exhaustion Phase

persistent stress depletes the body of energy, thereby increasing vulnerability to physical problem and illness

Stress Appraisal Theory

There is an interaction between the person and the environment 

The environment affects how people perceive and handle stress

SAM Axis

Alarm systems 

Sympathetic nervous systems 

Fight or flight 

Heart rate increase 

Body will release two hormones

Challenge activity

Heart rate increases

Blood vessels expand

Enhanced performance

Threat reactivity

Heat rate increases

Blood vessels constrict

Inhibited performance

Hysterical Strength

We only use a small percentage of our muscles

Adrenaline gives more oxygen to your muscles 

A burst of energy 

Sex differences in response to stress

Women may respond differently in stressful situations than men 

Tend and befriend response

Oxytocin 

Allostatic load

The sustained activation of many physiological \n systems in response to frequent or chronic \n stressors.

Psychoneuroimmunology

Stress disrupts the communication \n between the brain and the body \n which weakens the immune system

Stress and the Immune

System Cortisol suppresses immune system’s effectiveness \n Reduces white blood cell count \n Lack of control over inflammation response

Cardiovascular Issues

Hypertension \n Stress-induced cardiomyopathy (i.e., broken \n heart syndrome)

Emotions, Stress, and Cardiovascular Problems

Initial research linked A/B personality type to cardiovascular problems

Only one factor was eventually linked to cardiovascular problems

Negative affectivity

Stress & The Mind

Conscientiousness and feeling in control have been linked to better physical and psychological outcomes.

Problem Focused Coping

Attempting to manage or alter the stressor

Emotion Focused Coping

Attempting to reduce the negative emotions associated with the stress.

Rethinking the Problem

Reappraising the situation

Learning from experience

Making social comparisons

Positivity and Health

Positive psychology focuses on the strengths and virtues that help people thrive

Broaden-and-build function

The idea that positive emotions evolved as a signal of safety, allowing for exploration and creativity.

Trust

Trust is associated with better health and a longer life

Finding Meaning

Many people turn to religion to find a sense of meaning in the face of stress.

Can help people manage distress and maintain a sense of well-being

Outcomes are often worse for those who find themselves questioning whether God has abandoned them or is punishing them

To Inhibit or to Express?

Inhibition of thoughts and emotions is stressful

Divulging thoughts and feelings reduces the effect of negative emotions

Writing can produce insight and understanding

What is personality?

Patterns of thought and behavior that make a person react to certain situations in relatively consistent ways 

Psychodynamic theory

highlights the role of the unconscious mind, the structure of personality, and the influence that childhood experiences have on later life

Id

Pleasure principle

Ego

Reality principles

Superego

Seat of moral conscious

Displacement

a defense mechanism in which the ego redirects the aggressive impulses of id from their intended target to move defenseless targets 

Projection

a defense mechanism in which people, instead of acknowledging it in themselves, see others as possessing a disliked trait or feeling

Repression

a defense mechanism in which the ego keeps unwanted feelings, thoughts, and memories below the level of conscious awareness

Denial

a defense mechanism in which the ego prevents the perception of a painful or threatening reality as it is occurring

Psychosexual Stages

Developmental stages that correspond to the distinct libidinal urges

* Oral stage (birth - 18 months)
* Anal stage (2 - 3 years)
* Phallic stage (3 - 5 years)
* Latency stage (6 - 11 years)
* Genital stage (12+ years)

Evidence does not support these stages

Trait Theory

Gordon Allport was the first to pioneer the study of personality traits

* Cardinal - dominant trait 
* Central - General Disposition 
* Secondary - Relevant in certain contexts 

Trait Theory

Traits shape how a person interprets the world and can lead people to behave in similar ways across different situations

Identifying Central Traits

Openness to experience

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism 

The Dark Triad

Psychopathy

Machiavellians 

Narcissism 

The Light Triad

Kantianism

Faith in Humanity 

Humanism

Kantianism

Treating people as ends unto themselves, not mere means

Faith in Humanity 

Believing in the fundamental goodness of humans

Humanism

Valuing the dignity and worth of each individual 

Self- Reports

questionnaires that involve reporting on one’s own personality trait 

Projective tests

provides an ambiguous stimulus onto which the test-taker “projects” their personality 

Behavioral Tests

gathering information about people’s characteristics by assessing their overt behavior in highly standardized miniature situations 

Myers-Briggs

Developers had no training in psychometrics or psychological assessment

It categories personality traits 

Lacking validity and reliability

It is not related to any life outcomes

Cultural Differences 

Differences exist in the average levels of traits across cultures

Political and Cultural forces also shape how someone perceives average trait levels which is not always accurate

Behavioral activation system (BAS)

A biological system that governs people’s general tendencies toward approaching things that are rewarding

Behavioral inhabitation system (BIS)

A biological system that governs people’s general tendencies toward avoiding things that are threatening.

Reciprocal determinism

personality is shaped by the interaction of the environment and aspects of \n the individual