Human Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 4

Anabolism

• larger molecules constructed from smaller ones

• requires energy input

• provides materials for cellular growth & repair

Dehydration Synthesis

• joins many monosaccharides to form larger glycogen molecules

• glycogen molecules store energy

• builds protein molecules in cells

Catabolism

• larger molecules broken into smaller ones

• releases energy

Peptide bond

• bond between a carbon atom and a nitrogen atom

• holds amino acids together

hydrolysis

• catabolism

• dispose of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins

• water molecule is used

• reverse of dehydration synthesis

• fats→ glycerol + fatty acids

• carbohydrates → monosaccharides

• proteins → amino acids

• enzymes required

aer

air

an

without

ana

up

cata

down

co

with

de

undoing

mut

change

strat

spread out

sub

under

zym

causing to ferment

How do enzymes work?

1. enzyme combines with substrate

2. forms enzyme-substrate complex

3. chemical reaction happens

4. product + unchanged enzyme

can be denatured (heat, chemicals, electricity, radiation, extreme pH)

metabolic pathway

a sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions which breaks down or synthesizes specific biochemicals

How do enzymes regulate metabolic pathways

• amount of enzymes limited

• enzymes saturated after certain concentration level reached

• when reached increasing substrate concentration doesn’t effect reaction rate

• rate-limiting enzymes

cofactor

• ion of element

• helps active site become correct shape

• or helps bind enzyme to substrate

coenzyme

• small organic molecule

• many made of vitamins

• helps active site become correct shape

• or helps bind enzyme to substrate

cellular respiration is

the process that releases energy from molecules so it can be used.

the three reactions that make up cellular respiration are

glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain

glycolysis

• breaks down glucose into 3 carbon-pryruvic acid molecules

• occurs in cytosol

• does not require oxygen

• aka anaerobic phase of CR

steps of glycolysis

1. glucose is phosphorylated

2. the 6 carbon glucose molecule is split into 2 3 carbon molecules

3. NADH is produced ATP is synthesized and 2 3 carbon pyruvic acid molecules are produced

Citric Acid cycle products

1 ATP molecule and 2 carbon dioxide molecules

How are carbohydrates stored?

as glycogen mostly in liver and muscle cells or as fat when the person eats more carbohydrates than can be stored as glycogen or are required for normal activity

DNA full name

deoxyribonucleic acid

genome

complete set of genetic instructions in a cell

ATGC bases names

Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine

DNA Replication steps

1. hydrogen bonds between base pairs break

2. DNA unwinds

3. New nucleotides pair with exposed bases & bond together

4. enzymes create new sugar-phosphate backbone

Result: 2 complete DNA strands

RNA full name

Ribonucleic acid

Protein Synthesis steps

1. Transcription

2. -mRNA is synthesized

3. -RNA leaves DNA and DNA rewinds

4. RNA goes to ribosome where codons on mRNA are translated to amino acids (translation)

codon

• groups of 3 bases

• each code for different amino acid

tRNA

• transfer RNA

• aligns amino acids so they can bond

anticodon

• nucleotides at the end of a strand of mRNA

• unique to type of RNA

• only bond to complementary mRNA codon

• tRNA brings amino acid to correct place in mRNA sequence

The number of molecules of a protein that a cell synthesize is

• proportional to the number of corresponding mRNA molecules

• dependent on the rate at which mRNA is synthesized

• the rate at which enzymes destroy mRNA in the cytoplasm

mutation

when DNA is damaged or a mistake is made during replication that causes the alteration of the genetic information

causes of mutations

• bases paired incorrectly

• extra bases added

• sections of DNA deleted or moved to other regions of molecule or attached to different chromosome

• chemicals

• radiation

repair enzymes

clip out mismached nucleotides and replace them with the correct ones

when mutation with third base in codon

still codes for same amino acid

when mutation with second base in codon

codes for slightly different but very similar amino acid

mutagens

chemicals that cause mutations