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Protestant Reformation

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement in Europe during the 16th century that led to the creation of Protestant Christianity and the split from the Roman Catholic Church.

Martin Luther

A German theologian and key figure in the Protestant Reformation who criticized the corruption in the Catholic Church and advocated for reform.

Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg, it allowed for the mass production of books, including Martin Luther's translation of the Bible into secular German, which encouraged the spread of Protestant beliefs.

John Calvin

A French theologian who organized a Protestant community in Geneva and codified Protestant teachings, emphasizing the power of God and the concept of predestination.

Anglican Church

The church established in England during the English Reformation, with Henry VIII declaring himself the Supreme Head of the church after a conflict with the Pope.

Council of Trent

A meeting of Catholic bishops, cardinals, and officials that defined Catholic theology and implemented reforms in response to the Protestant Reformation.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, a religious order founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, known for their rigorous education, missionary work, and defense of Catholicism.

Witch-Hunts

The persecution and trials of individuals, mostly women, accused of witchcraft, often based on superstitions and fears of alliances with the devil.

Religious Wars

Conflicts between Protestants and Catholics in Europe, including the Spanish attempt to dethrone Queen Elizabeth I of England and the revolt of Dutch provinces against Spanish rule.

Absolute Monarchy

A form of government where the monarch holds supreme authority and is not limited by laws or a constitution.

Louis XIV

The Sun King of France, known for his absolute rule, the construction of the Palace of Versailles, and his efforts to establish French boundaries through wars.

Peter I (the Great)

Tsar of Russia who pursued military power, modernization, and reforms in Russia, including the construction of a navy and administrative changes.

Peace of Westphalia

A series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of individual state sovereignty and religious tolerance in Europe.

Capitalism

An economic system characterized by private ownership of goods and the pursuit of profit through competitive markets.

Serfdom

A system of labor in which serfs, who were tied to the land, were owned by nobles and provided cheap labor for agricultural production.

Ptolemaic Universe

The geocentric model of the universe proposed by Ptolemy, which believed in a motionless Earth and circular paths of heavenly bodies.

Epicycles

Small revolutions made by planets around themselves, proposed by astronomers to explain the discrepancies in planetary movements.

Copernican Universe

The heliocentric model of the universe proposed by Copernicus, which placed the Sun at the center and challenged the traditional belief system.

Scientific Revolution

A period of intellectual and scientific advancements during the 16th and 17th centuries that challenged existing theories and led to new discoveries.

Galileo

An Italian astronomer who supported Copernican ideas, discovered the elliptical orbits of planets, and made significant contributions to the field of physics.

Isaac Newton

An English scientist who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, providing mathematical explanations for the movements of celestial bodies.

Emilie du Chatelet

A French mathematician and physicist who translated Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica and built upon his principles.

Martin Luther

A German theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation with his 95 Theses, emphasizing the central authority of the Bible and salvation through faith.

Council of Trent

A council held by the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation, addressing corruption and reaffirming Catholic doctrines.

Jesuits

A religious order founded during the Counter-Reformation, known as the Society of Jesus, focused on education and missionary work.

Witch hunts

A period of intense persecution and trials targeting individuals, mostly women, accused of practicing witchcraft.

Peace of Westphalia

A series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War and established the principle of religious tolerance and recognition of state sovereignty.

Louis XIV

The absolute monarch of France known as the Sun King, who centralized power and drained resources during his reign.

Peter the Great

An absolute monarch of Russia who modernized the country through military reforms, westernization, and expansion.

Mercantilism

An economic system that aimed to maximize exports and limit imports in order to accumulate wealth and power.

Taino

Indigenous people who settled in the Americas before the arrival of the Spanish.

Encomienda

A system in which Spanish encomenderos were responsible for the welfare and conversion to Christianity of Taino workers.

Smallpox

A disease that caused a decline in the Taino population and led to the enslavement of more Taino by the Spanish.

Cash crop cultivation

The discovery that the Americas were ideal for growing crops, leading to the establishment of plantations.

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador who conquered Tenochtitlan with the help of indigenous allies.

Epidemic Disease

Drastic depopulation caused by diseases such as smallpox.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who exploited the feud between ruling Incan brothers and took control of Cuzco.

Viceroys

King's representatives who governed Spanish colonies in Mexico and Peru.

Audiencias

Educated evaluators who kept the viceroys in check.

Settler Colonies

Permanent colonies established in North America by European powers.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Agreement between Spain and Portugal that divided the Americas between them.

Mestizo

A person of mixed Spanish and native parentage.

Peninsulares

People from the Iberian Peninsula who held high social status in the Americas.

Mulattoes

People of mixed Portuguese and African descent.

Engenho

A sugar mill that required both skilled and unskilled workers.

Fur Trade

Indigenous peoples trapped animals for Europeans to trade for other goods.

Indentured Labor

Servants who worked for a set period of time in exchange for passage to the Americas.

Syncretism

The blending of indigenous and European religious beliefs and practices.

Manila galleon trade

Trade route between Manila and Acapulco that brought silver to China.

Chamorro peoples

Indigenous people of Guam and the Mariana Islands.

Doctrine of discovery

The belief that European countries were entitled to claim non-Christian "undiscovered" lands.

Inter Caetera

A papal bull that divided the newly discovered lands between Portugal and Spain with a line down the middle.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A treaty that further divided the newly discovered lands between Portugal and Spain.

Treaty of Zaragoza

A treaty that attempted to resolve the issue of the Maluku islands by drawing another line.

Mita system

A system in which workers in mines were paid tribute from each village but not enough to sustain a decent living.

Silver trade

The trade of silver, primarily mined by Spain from the Americas, which had a significant impact on the global economic system.

Haciendas

Plantations modeled after the latifundia system, focused on profit.

Ming Dynasty

A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 1368 to 1644.

Hongwu

The founder of the Ming Dynasty who implemented a tightly centralized government.

Mandarins

Officials who served in the Ming government.

Eunuchs

Castrated males who worked for the emperor in the Ming Dynasty.

The Great Wall

A massive wall in China that was expanded and repaired during the Ming Dynasty.

Confucianism

A system of philosophical and ethical teachings that was sponsored by the Ming Dynasty.

Pirates

Groups of individuals who led to instability during the Ming Dynasty.

Manchu

A group of people who invaded China and eventually displaced the Ming Dynasty.

Qing Dynasty

The dynasty that was established by the Manchus and ruled China from 1644 to 1911.

Nurhaci

The leader who consolidated the Qing's hold over all territories.

Kangxi

A Qing emperor who supported literacy and education and expanded Chinese influence.

Qianlong

A Qing emperor known for his learned and sophisticated reign.

Son of Heaven

The divine ruler in Chinese society who was highly respected.

Scholar-Bureaucrats

Literate men who dominated Chinese political and social life.

Civil Service Test

A rigorous examination that determined who could become a government official in China.

Filial Piety

The veneration of ancestors and elders in Chinese society.

Population Growth

The increase in the number of people in China, which led to economic and social issues.

Foreign Trade

The exchange of goods between China and other countries, such as silk, porcelain, and tea.

Gentry

The privileged class in Chinese society, including scholar-bureaucrats and landowners.

Working Classes

The lower classes in Chinese society, including peasants, artisans, and workers.

Neo-Confucianism

A form of Confucianism that emphasized moral cultivation and self-discipline.

Pop Culture

Entertainment and diversion in Chinese society, including novels, teahouses, and wine houses.

Matteo Ricci

A Jesuit missionary who tried to convert China to Christianity and spread knowledge and innovation.

Ottoman Empire

A powerful empire founded by Osman, known for its expansion and military strength.

Ghazi

Muslim religious warriors who sought to expand the Ottoman Empire.

Devshirme

A tribute system in which young boys were taken as slaves to become soldiers, particularly Janissaries, in the Ottoman Empire.

Janissaries

Elite soldiers in the Ottoman Empire who were once slaves and played a crucial role in the empire's military power.

Mehmed the Conqueror

Ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople and expanded the empire's territory.

Suleyman the Magnificent

Ottoman sultan who presided over the empire's golden age and expanded its imperial reach.

Safavid Empire

An empire in Persia (modern-day Iran) that was known for its adoption of Shiism as the state religion.

Shah Ismail

Founder of the Safavid Empire and a proponent of Twelver Shiism.

Qizilbash

Followers of Shah Ismail who wore red turbans with 12 folds to represent their religious beliefs.

Mughal Empire

A dynasty that ruled over a large part of the Indian subcontinent, known for its military prowess and cultural achievements.

Babur

Founder of the Mughal Empire who used gunpowder weapons to conquer Delhi.

Akbar

Mughal emperor who promoted religious tolerance and implemented policies that centralized his power.

Aurangzeb

Mughal emperor who expanded the empire's territory but imposed strict Islamic policies and targeted Hinduism.

Kanun

Legal edicts that governed the Ottoman Empire, particularly under the rule of Suleyman.

Millet

Autonomous religious communities in the Ottoman Empire that retained their own cultures and traditions.

Hurrem Sultana

Chief wife of Suleyman the Magnificent who wielded influence and enjoyed privileges.

Shah Jahan

Mughal emperor who built the Taj Mahal in honor of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.

Ottoman Decline

Incompetent rulers, infighting, and economic difficulties that led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire.

Safavid Decline

Religious tensions and difficulties with the Shiites that contributed to the decline of the Safavid Empire.

Mughal Decline

Economic difficulties, military decline, and religious tensions that led to the decline of the Mughal Empire.