Buddhism, migration and religious pluralism

People migrate to the uk - the British empire and its legacy

• After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Many former colonies became part of the Commonwealth, and the British Nationality Act 1948 allowed members to settle in the UK, creating a multicultural society by expanding the definition of British citizenship and widening cultural diversity.

• Buddhist migrants were mostly Theravada Buddhists from Southeast Asia, particularly Sri Lanka

People migrate to the uk - the attractiveness of the uk as a place to live

• The uk has always been attractive to economic migrants for its higher standard of living, including free healthcare and education. Also protects freedom of religion as a human right.

• Appealing for Buddhist refugees who have been persecuted in their homeland, eg Tibetans in the 1950s

People migrate to the uk - uk skills shortage

• Migration is easier when migrants are able to fill a skill shortage in the receiving country - particularly seen in the UK, again, following the Second World War, with the movement of many ethnic groups to the UK to find employment.

• These were often Sri Lankan as they were disproportionately skilled (e.g. as doctors, teachers, and engineers). However, migrants from other countries with a Buddhist minority also entered the UK during this time, such as India and China, introducing Mahayana Buddhism to the UK and further diversifying the UK's Buddhist population.

Freedom of religion as a human right in European law

• Universal declaration of human rights (1948), article 18

• “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion”

Religious pluralism

Different religions co-existing in harmony. It can also refer to the view that all religions are equal

Secular state

State is officially neutral in matters of religion

Reasons for the diversity of Buddhism in Britain - Buddhism naturally adapts to new surroundings and is willing to change itself as a form of Upaya

This also reflects the underlying belief in anicca; Buddhists should be wary of attachment to impermanent things, even teachings and practices. The different forms of Buddhism reflect the nature of conventional truth, according to which Buddhism offers different "vehicles" to the truth, each suited to the context of different individuals/societies.

Reasons for the diversity of Buddhism in Britain - many different forms of Buddhism across Asia

Migration to the UK from these different countries has caused Buddhism in the UK to reflect this diversity. In other words, in a multicultural country, different forms of Buddhism will naturally end up flourishing to reflect the different cultures they originate from.

Reasons for the diversity of Buddhism in Britain - the challenge of secularisation

The challenge of secularisation and the perceived need to establish forms of Buddhism suited to a modern secular society has led to forms of Buddhism that focus more on therapeutic practice and less on religion.

Differing Buddhist views on beliefs about the Buddha

• Theravada: 28 Buddhas, only one present in the world at any time. Siddhartha Gautama most significant and achieved enlightenment/ parinirvana within a human life. Buddhas identified by physical marks.

• Mahayana: endless Buddhas in endless worlds. Take many forms - bodies are skilful means. Gautama was only the human manifestation and born enlightened - trikaya teaches Buddhas have other bodies.

• Judgement: though there are different understandings of the moment of Gautama’s enlightenment, both traditions celebrate him and recognise Buddhahood as the supreme spiritual achievement, so could still be described as one tradition

Differing Buddhist views on moral teachings

• Theravada: ahimsa as prohibitive, five precepts emphasised - strict training rules

• Mahayana: 6 perfections, ahimsa as realising best outcome, upaya

Differing Buddhist views in style of worship or structure of sangha

• Theravada: monastic life emphasised as higher good, strict adherence to vinaya limitations

• Mahayana: monastic life seen as less important, some adaptations eg ordination of women

Differing Buddhist views on goals/ ideals

• Theravada: arhat - perfected saint, achievement of parinirvana, non attachment and renunciation

• Mahayana: bodhisattva - choice to be reborn, buddhahood

Different Buddhist views in use of scripture

• Theravada: pali canon - accepts as accurate and treated as final teachings of Buddha

• Mahayana: uses lotus sutra and heart sutra, pali canon is authentic but provisional, higher teachings found in Mahayana sutras

Exclusivist

The view that only one particular religion or belief system is true

Inclusivism

The view that many different religions or belief systems contain truth, but one in particular holds the most truth

Pluralism

The view that all religious beliefs are equally valid and there is no reason to hod one above the rest

Soteriological exclusivism

The view that only only members of one particular religion will be saved or redeemed

Edict 12 of Ashoka

• “There should be growth in the essentials of all religions”. Ashoka suggests we should not praise our own religion or condemn another without good reason. He states that contact between religions is good.

• This shows a pluralist attitude, though the “without good reason” addition leaves open the possibility of condemning extremist or harmful religions.

For using Ashoka’s edicts as a source on Buddhist beliefs

• Many Buddhists text have been written on Ashoka and treat him as an important figure of legendary

• Asoka’s inscriptions use the word ‘dharma’, showing that he was ruling according to Buddhist principles

• Ashoka organised the first Buddhist council and was therefore involved in the development of the Buddhist tradition

• Ashoka is one of our earliest write sources on Theravada Buddhism and has been used to construct much of what we know about the tradition

• Although technically a layperson, Ashoka shows us what Buddhism looks like as a religion when it is applied at the level of the state

Against using Ashoka as a source on Buddhist beliefs

• It is not clear whether by ‘dharma’ Ashoka is referring to something specifically Buddhist or just general rules and principles

• Ashoka was born before Mahayana sutras were written/ discovered, so was only aware of one form of Buddhism

• Some scholars have suggested that Ashoka clearly inscribed his edicts for propaganda purposes, and therefore they should be treated as neither an accurate record of historical events nor of his own views

• Some scholars have suggested that accounts of Ashoka’s violence and conversion are exaggerated by Buddhists in order to show his conversion as miraculous

• Ashoka’s edicts are not part a part of the pali canon and therefore, while important, should remain secondary to sources such as the Buddhas own words and the abhidhamma

• Ashoka was a layperson, not a monk, and therefore should not be treated as an enlightened being or source of authority

Kalama sutra

• In the Kalama Sutra, the Buddha sets down a clear criteria for how the claims of different religions should be treated.

• The Kalamas ask Buddha how they can tell, when different monks enter their village, which of their claims are true and which are false.

• The Buddha explains that they should not rely on a range of factors including tradition, rumour, scripture, surmise, specious reasoning, or the authority of a teacher. Instead they should do only what is praised by the wise and leads to benefit and happiness.

• Buddha here shows an attitude of freely testing different beliefs and finding what works in practice.

The conversion of Upali

Upali was a Jain monk who was so impressed by hearing the Buddha speak, he asked to become one of his followers. Buddha told him to go away and consider first, and when Upali returned, Buddha only allowed him to join the Sangha if he would continue to give alms to Jain monks.

Nichiren Buddhism

• Nicherin Buddhism is a Japanese school named after the monk Nicherin.

• Nicherin believed that the Lotus Sutra is the only scripture needed for enlightenment and that others were merely a distraction.

• He rejected other Buddhist schools and even blamed them for natural disasters.

• Nichiren’s harsh attitude is seen as extremely exclusivist.

Diversity within Buddhism

• Nichiren Buddhism

• Parable of the burning house

Diversity between religions

• Edict 12

• Kalama sutra

• Conversion of upali

Public preaching

• Freedom to preach religion in a public space without silencing, arrest or encountering harm

• Could be seen as attacking others/ intimidating/ fear mongering

  • Hate speech

  • Harassment

• Wouldn’t be appropriate outside other place of worships/ abortion clinics to advertise against abortion to promote their religion

Buddhist response to public preaching and proselytisation

• Inclusivist → edict 12 encourages growth of all religions

  • Edict 12 also discourages praising ones own religion

• Buddhist examples of public preaching

  • Buddhists vs Jains, eg conversion of upali

  • Nichiren Buddhism

Sartorial norms

• Manifestation of beliefs through clothes

  • Modesty/ moral norms

  • Expression of faith

  • Public spaces

  • May be seen as proselytising

  • Security reasons (race coverings)

  • Symbol interpretation

• France an example of banning burqas in public spaces in 2010

Buddhist response to sartorial norms

• Kalama sutta - allows and encourages religious diversity → ‘benefit and happiness’

• Monastic code - monks need protection from biased discrimination

• Craving/ attachment - anatta violated

Faith schools

• Nearly 8000 faith schools

  • Right to manifest religion in a community through teaching

• Michaela school, Brent → had prayer bans

Buddhist response to faith schools

• Buddhist tradition in Thailand involves monks in education

• Right speech - if speech is harmless it shouldn’t be suppressed

• Ahimsa - application of upaya