AS PE WJEC

Definition of social stratification

refers to a society’s ranking of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors: wealth, race, education, ethnicity, gender, social status

Facts and Statistics on sports inequality

* more likely to have a sporting career if privately educated
* 37% rugby union attended private schools
* Hockey and cricket are dominated by priveate education
* 7% of team GB are privately educated
* 6% of England are privately educated → 1/3 of team GB medalists are privately eduated

factors that effect the opportunity to take part in sport

* cost
* gender
* disabilities
* access to facilities
* travel
* childcare
* lack of time
* lack of role models

Disability in sport

opportunity → little to no in school

provisions → needs driven, accessible clubs, specialised coaching

esteem → feel different, lack of role models

Resources → accessible facilities e.g. ramps

Discrimination

use of negative perception to make a distinction between individuals or groups

Stereotyping

A preconceived, oversimplified perception of an individual or group

Prejudice

A previously formed biased opinion which has no evidence to back it up in disadvantaged groups

Opportunity

to participate fully in all sports, excel at them, develop careers in them

Provision

of equal facilities, financial aid, coaching and representative opportunities

Esteem

seen through an acceptance of equal opportunity/status, comparable media coverage/recognition and financial reward

Race: opportunity, provision, esteem

Opportunity

* non-acceptance in clubs/cultures
* religious beliefs
* stacking
* lack of career opportunities

Provision

* associated with certain sports
* lack of changing facilities - religious
* coaches not available - religious

Esteem

* lack of role models
* poorly paid jobs
* low media coverage

Disability: opportunity, provision, esteem

opportunity

* some sports don’t cater for disabilities
* few disabled sports clubs
* few coaches
* poor career prospects

Provision

* lack of specialised equipment
* poor accessibility
* inadequate changing facilities
* few activities
* cost of special provisions

Esteem

* stereotypes
* few role models
* low media coverage
* perceived as not able

Gender: opportunity, provisions, esteem

opportunity

* childcare
* religious restrictions
* fewer female coaches

provision

* lack of creche facilities
* few female coaches
* lower pay/prize money

Esteem

* lack of role models
* poor media coverage
* sexualisation
* lack of sponsorship
* stereotypes

Social class: opportunity, provision, esteem

opportunity

* working class - little leisure time
* lack of finance
* restricted access to certain clubs
* other classes have more leisure time and wealth

Provision

* working class - limited facilities
* reliant on funding
* wealthy - more money, equipment, travel, top coaches

Esteem

* new role models now
* less wealthy seen as less able
* media helps to gain sponsors

sexploitaion

the pressure on sportswomen to increase sponsorships and media coverage, resorting to taking off their clothes to receive publicity

sexualising the female athlete at the expense of her sporting achievements

Social mobility (Sport)

* sport is seen as a method of social mobility
* sport provides an end goal for many underprivileged people
* someone from disadvantaged background who succeeded in sport can use their role model status to break through barriers that exist within sport

Strategies for improving participation amongst disadvantaged groups

* Kick it out
* This girl can
* Together we will
* Street games

Stress

A stimulus resulting in a positive or negative response to a specific situation It produces both physiological and psychological symptoms

What is eustress?

Positive stress - it can increase focus, attention and skill level

What is distress?

Negative stress - extreme form of anxiety, nervousness, apprehension or worry as a result of a perceived inability to meet demands

Effects of stress on performance

* Demand
* perception of demand → challenge or threat
* Increased arousal levels → eustress or distress
* Outcome → increased performance or reduced performance

What 2 key aspects of sports performance cause stress?

* Importance of event
* Amount of uncertainty that surrounds it

What is the difference between stress and anxiety?

Stress is a reaction to threatening stimulus, anxiety is a reaction to stress

What are the 2 main types of anxiety?

Trait anxiety - part of personality State anxiety - emotional response

What are the 2 types of state anxiety?

Cognitive state anxiety:

* negative thoughts
* nervousness and worry
* symptoms: fear and bad decision making

Somatic state anxiety:

* perception of physiological changes
* symptoms: increased HR and/or RR

What is arousal?

referred to as a physiological state of alertness and anticipation that prepares the body for action

Arousal continuum

deep sleep at one extreme and excitement at the other

Drive theory

* As arousal increases so does performance
* performance = arousal x skill
* Evidence to suggest that athletic performance is benefited by arousal only up to a certain point e.g. becoming over-aroused = decrease in performance

Inverted u hypothesis

* as arousal increases, so does performance up to an optimum point before decreasing
* Arousal level depends on ability and experience levels of the athlete
* Type of sport affects the point of optimal arousal
* unidimensional → doesn’t take cognitive and somatic anxiety into account

Catastrophe theory

* links arousal and anxiety together
* if the athlete experiences high levels of cognitive state anxiety as arousal rises → dramatic drop in performance
* As cognitive increases so does performance as long as somatic anxiety remains low
* if both cognitive and somatic anxiety are high = catastrophic effect on performance → rapid decline
* Doesn’t explain why 2 types of anxiety affect performance

Individual zone of optimal functioning (ZOF)

* relationship of stress, arousal and anxiety all impact performance
* Individuals perform optimally at different levels of arousal
* optimal levels of functioning depend on athlete’s psychological awareness
* doesn’t explain why some individuals perform better in certain emotional states than others

Factors that can affect arousal levels

* personality → extroverts - high, introverts -low
* task → simple/gross - high, complex/fine - low
* Stage of learning → autonomous - high, cognitive/associative - low

In the zone

* feel in control
* effortless
* enjoyment and satisfaction
* attention and concentration

What is meant by peak flow?

the ultimate positive state

Characteristics of peak flow experience

* high level of control over performance
* high self-awareness
* time feels slowed down
* performance feels effortless
* maximum focus on the activity

Attention focus

* narrow attentional field → more aroused you become the lower number of cues you can concentrate on
* Broad attentional field → high arousal levels can also broaden attention to the point where performance is decreased

Measurement of stress, arousal and anxiety

* physiological tests → heart rate, breathing rate, muscle response, sweat levels, hormone levels
* psychological tests → SCAT, CSAI-2

Methods to control stress, arousal and anxiety

Cognitive stress → positive thinking/talk, imagery, goal setting

Somatic stress → progressive muscular relaxation, biofeedback, breathing control

what are the three planes of motion?

* sagittal
* frontal
* transverse (horizontal)

sagittal plane

* vertically divides body into left and right parts
* forward or backward movement
* e.g. somersault, bicep curl, lunge
* movements →plantar flexion; dorsiflexion; elbow and knee flexion and extension; shoulder and hip flexion, extension and hyperextension

Transverse (horizontal) plane

* divides body into upper and lower parts
* rotational movement, shoulder and hip horizontal abduction and adduction
* e.g discus, forehand (tennis), baseball swing

Frontal plane

* vertically divides body into anterior and posterior parts (front and back)sideways movement
* shoulder and hip adduction and abduction
* e.g. a cartwheel (side), lateral shoulder raise

What are the three axis of rotation?

* longitudinal axis
* frontal axis
* transverse axis

longitudinal axis

vertically from top to bottom → e.g. full twist or ice-skater spinning

frontal axis

horizontally from front to back (stomach to spine) → cartwheel

transverse axis

horizontally from side to side (hip to hip) → e.g. somersault

Examples of actions in planes and axis

Action → plane → axis

* Kick → sagittal → transverse
* running → sagittal → transverse
* throw → sagittal → transverse
* forehand shot → transverse → longitudinal
* cartwheel → frontal → frontal
* pirouette → transverse → longitudinal

3 components of a lever system

* fulcrum → fixed point F
* Load/resistance → weight to be moved L/R
* Effort → source of energy E

3 types of levers

* 1st class → fulcrum in between
* 2nd class → load in between
* 3rd class → effort in between

1st class levers

fulcrum between load and effort → e.g. extension of neck, header; seated dumbbell triceps extension

2nd class levers

load between fulcrum and effort → e.g. ankle, plantar flexion, calf-raise

3rd class levers

effort between load and fulcrum → e.g. flexion of elbow, bicep curl

Mechanical advantage

* 1st and 2nd class levers
* effort arm is longer than load arm
* requires a smaller effort to move the load

Mechanical disadvantage

* 1st and 3rd class levers
* load arm is longer than effort arm
* requires more effort to move the load

Advantages and disadvantages of 1st class levers

\+fulcrum lies in middle it can favour either load or effort depending on positioning

\- when load arm is longer than effort arm not much force can be created

Advantages and disadvantages of 2nd class levers

\+effort arm is long, can generate large forces

\- limited range of movement due to short load arm

\- load cannot be moved quickly

Advantages and disadvantages of 3rd class levers

\+ large range of movement

\+ short distance allows quick movement

\- short effort arm means not much force can be applied to the load

What are the components of a balanced diet?

* carbohydrates → main source of energy
* fats → a source of energy, important for soluble vitamins
* proteins → growth and repair
* vitamins → chemical processes
* minerals → critical for normal functions
* fibre → essential for health of digestive system
* water → essential for normal body function

What are the recommended daily allowances (RDAs)?

* carbohydrates → 50-65%
* Fats → 20-30%
* proteins → 10-20%

Energy balances

* positive = calories in > calories out → weight gain
* neutral = calories in = calories out → weight stability
* negative = calories in < calories out → weight loss

What elements do carbohydrates contain?

* Carbon
* Hydrogen
* oxygen

2 types of carbohydrates

* complex carbohydrates → starch, e.g. fruits, beg, pasta, potato, bread
* simple carbohydrates → glucose, e.g. glucose, fructose, lactose

What is glycaemic index (GI)?

a ranking of how quickly carbohydrate foods raise blood glucose levels (BGLs)

* high GI → quickly
* Low GI → gradually

what are the boundaries of GI rankings

* High → 70-100, e.g. white bread, baked potato
* Medium → 55-69, e.g. mango, pineapple
* Low →

GI and weight loss

* high GI is generally avoided → raise BGLs quickly → the energy not used is stored as fat
* low GI → leaves less hungry → causes gradual rise in BGLs, easier to use energy

GI and Exercise

* Pre → low GI, 3hrs prior, e.g. lettuce and tomatoes
* During → high GI, maintains energy stores, releases energy quickly e.g. jelly babies
* Post → high and low, within 30 mins, replenishes stores of energy in muscle cells e.g. brown bread and banana

Carbohydrate loading

* Depletion stage →7 days prior to event, →participation in endurance exercise helps deplete glycogen stores
* Tapering stage →next 3 days, lower than normal level of carbs in diet → training kept moderate, similar intensity, shorter duration
* Loading stage → 3-4 days prior to event, carb intake greatly increased,(70-80% of diet) → training greatly reduced
* Pre-competition meal → high carb, mix of medium and low GIs

Advantages of carbohydrate loading

* more stored energy
* performance sustained for longer
* don’t move to fat stores as quickly

Disadvantages of carbohydrate loading

* lead to weight gain/water retention
* excess is stored as fat
* limits training potential in depletion stage

What element do fats contain?

* carbon
* hydrogen
* oxygen

Functions of fats

* a source of energy
* insulation
* transport of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)cushions and protects internal organs
* concentrated source of energy → 1g = 9 calories

Types of naturally occurring fats

* saturated fats → animal sources, e.g. butter, cheese whole milk
* unsaturated fats → healthier than saturated e.g. vegetable oils, soya and olive

What elements do proteins contain?

* Carbon
* Hydrogen
* Oxygen
* Nitrogen
* sometimes sulfur

Fuelling the energy systems

* carbs and fats converted to ATP based on intensity and duration or aerobic/anaerobic fitness level
* carbs main source of moderate - high intensity
* fat source of lower intensity
* fat molecules take 15% more oxygen to break down than glucose molecules
* fats are good for high endurance activities not high intensity e.g. hiking
* as intensity increases carb metabolism takes over, more efficient than fat metabolism

Carbohydrate intake during exercise

* frequent but small amounts of CHO laden food/drink
* during activities 45mins or more to replenish glycogen stores and delay fatigue
* useful for games players and distance runners

Hydration

* maintaining the current levels of water in the body, allowing normal function
* if water levels drop the body becomes dehydrated →dramatic, negative effect on sporting performance

physiological responses to dehydration

* if water in blood plasma isn’t replaced, the blood becomes more viscous
* increase in heart rate and breathing rate
* oxygen is transported at slower rate
* less glucose/glycogen and fatty acids are transported
* increased levels of lactic acid production

signs of dehydration

* Dry mouth and lips
* colour of urine → clear = hydrated, yellow/brown = dehydrated

Hydration during exercise

* depends on climate conditions and size of individual
* small amounts at regular intervals150-250ml for every 10-15 mins of exercise or 1/2 - 1L per hour
* if exercising for more than 90mins → energy drinks can be beneficial

Hydration after exercise

* essential to aid recovery process
* weigh athlete before and after event → for every 1kg body weight lost approx 1L of water consumed

Sports drinks

* Hypotonic
* Isotonic
* Hypertonic

Hypotonic

* sugar and salt concentration lower than the body
* useful for athletes that require fluid without carbohydrate boost e.g. gymnasts

Isotonic

* Same concentration of sugar and salt as the body
* useful for middle and long distance runners and team sports
* quickly replaces fluids lots and gives carbohydrate boost

Hypertonic

* higher concentration off sugar and salts than the body
* not consumed during exercise → increases dehydration

What is a skill?

the combination of ability and knowledge that allows you to complete a task to a high standard.

Skills are:

learntpermanent changes in behaviouraimed at achieving a goal

What makes a skilled performer?

Someone who can:

* achieve their goals consistently
* produce economic and efficient movement
* make accurate and appropriate decisions

Skill (definition)

the learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty

Ability (definition)

Physical attributes that affect our potential for a given sport (determined genetically)

What is the link between skill and ability?

the more ability an individual has the easier it will be to learn skills that utilise that ability

skill is the application of ability

Definition of learning

* the permanent change in behaviour that is reflected in a change in performance
* learning is a lifelong process
* every learner will progress through the stages of learning, given appropriate opportunities to practice and recieve feedback

Definition of perfromance

Performance is a demonstration of the solving of a problem or task

What is the link between learning and performance?

As learning takes place we see a gradual improvement in performance

What are the six classification continua?

* Muscular involvement
* Environmental influence
* Continuity
* Pacing
* Difficulty
* Organisation

What are the classifications of muscular involvement?

* Gross skills
* Fine skills

What are gross skills?

involve large muscle movements

fundamental patterns

e.g. shot putt

What are fine skills?

Involve intricate precise movements

high levels of hand-eye coordination

e.g. darts

What are the classifications of environmental influence?

* Open skills
* Closed skills

What are open skills?

The environment is constantly changing movements must be continually adapted

Skills are predominantly perceptual - lots of info to process

e.g. pass in hockey

What are closed skills?

Stable predictable environment

Not affected by the environment, movements follow a set pattern

Have a clear beginning and end

e.g. shot putt