Comprehensive Cardiovascular and Health Promotion Concepts for Students

What is the core goal of health promotion?

Empowering individuals to take control of their health through supportive approaches.

What is atherosclerosis?

The narrowing and hardening of arteries due to plaque buildup.

What is metabolic syndrome?

A cluster of conditions including high blood pressure, abnormal blood glucose, and cholesterol levels.

How does epigenetics relate to health?

Environmental factors can influence gene expression, effectively 'rewriting' how genes function over time.

What are 'upstream' structural factors in health?

Factors such as income, living environment, and access to resources, rather than just genetics or personal choice.

Why is a longitudinal study design useful in health research?

It allows researchers to observe changes in a population over time.

What is the role of HDL in cardiovascular health?

It helps offset the negative effects of LDL cholesterol.

What is the primary function of LDL cholesterol in heart disease?

It infiltrates the arterial lining, contributing to plaque buildup and atherosclerosis.

What is the CAR (Cortisol Awakening Response)?

A physiological response often measured to assess stress levels, which correlates with exercise habits.

What is Shared Decision Making (SDM)?

A collaborative process where clinicians and patients make evidence-informed, value-congruent medical decisions.

Why is SDM essential for 'weak' screening recommendations?

Because the trade-offs between benefits and harms are significant, and patient values determine the best course of action.

What is the main limitation of a narrative review?

It lacks the methodological rigor of a meta-analysis and is prone to confirmation bias.

What is the primary advantage of a meta-analysis?

It synthesizes data from multiple studies to determine causality with higher statistical power.

What is the '10-year lag' in cardiovascular disease?

The time it takes for arteries to become significantly clogged, often manifesting post-menopause.

What is the SURE test?

A tool used to assess a patient's comfort and confidence with a medical decision.

What are the three categories of cardiovascular risk factors?

Modifiable, non-modifiable, and emerging.

Give an example of a non-modifiable risk factor.

Family history (FHX) or genetics.

What is angina?

Chest pain that serves as a symptom of narrowed coronary arteries.

What is stenosis?

The abnormal narrowing of a blood vessel or other tubular organ.

What is the relationship between estrogen and HDL levels?

Estrogen is associated with higher HDL levels in females.

What does 'non-HDL' cholesterol represent?

The total cholesterol content minus the HDL component.

What is the purpose of using GRADE in screening recommendations?

To evaluate the quality of evidence and the strength of clinical recommendations.

What is the most effective approach to managing cardiovascular health?

Combining medication with consistent exercise and a healthy diet.

What is the role of Vaso-relaxors?

They help relax blood vessels, reducing the restriction that contributes to high blood pressure.

Why is it important to assess patient preferences early in a clinical consultation?

It ensures the patient's values are prioritized and guides the evidence-sharing process.

What is the primary effect of high LDL levels on arteries?

It accelerates plaque buildup and contributes to endothelial dysfunction.

What is the difference between a thrombosis and an embolus?

Thrombosis is a plaque rupture occurring in situ, while an embolus is a blockage that travels from a larger artery to a smaller one.

What is the clinical significance of Troponin levels in heart injury?

Troponin levels rise within 2-3 hours of an injury, serving as a marker for myocardial infarction.

How does stable angina differ from unstable angina?

Stable angina is relieved by rest, whereas unstable angina persists regardless of activity level.

At what percentage of arterial blockage do symptoms typically manifest?

Symptoms usually appear when an artery is 75% blocked, though they can occur at lower percentages.

What is the role of a stent in treating arterial plaque?

A stent is used to keep the artery open after plaque has been pushed back during a procedure.

What is a SNP in the context of genetic variation?

A single nucleotide polymorphism, where a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) differs between individuals.

How do lifestyle factors influence genetic risk for cardiovascular events?

Lifestyle factors can significantly lower the relative risk of composite cardiovascular endpoints, even in those with high genetic risk.

What is the primary function of HDL in cholesterol metabolism?

HDL facilitates reverse cholesterol transport, moving cholesterol from the body back to the liver.

Why is the number of LDL particles (LDL-P) considered a better metric than LDL alone?

LDL-P provides a more accurate assessment of the number of particles depositing cholesterol in arteries, accounting for size and modification.

What is the effect of estrogen on HDL levels?

Estrogen helps maintain HDL levels; a lack of estrogen leads to a decrease in HDL.

How do Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids differ in their inflammatory effects?

Omega-3 is anti-inflammatory and has weaker clotting effects, while Omega-6 is more inflammatory and promotes clotting.

What is the role of PAI-1 in blood clotting?

PAI-1 slows down fibrinolysis, the process of breaking down blood clots.

What happens to LDL particles when they become triglyceride-rich?

They become prone to lipase-mediated trimming, which can alter their size and increase their atherogenic potential.

What is the significance of the necrotic core in plaque?

A larger necrotic core increases the burden on the plaque and the risk of rupture.

What is the most common intense activity associated with heart attacks?

Snow shoveling.

What does CK-MB testing measure?

It monitors the duration of cardiac injury over 2-3 days, helping to identify ongoing or recurring myocardial infarction.

What is variant angina?

A condition where the artery contracts, causing pain that eventually relieves itself.

What is the function of VLDL?

VLDL transports fats after eating; high levels increase the risk of atherosclerosis as they oxidize.

Why are smaller LDL particles harder to clear?

They are more easily trapped within arterial tissues and particles.

What is the relationship between Factor VII and blood clotting?

Increased levels of Factor VII promote blood clotting.

What is the primary goal of exercise in cardiovascular health regarding blood vessels?

Exercise acts as a vasodilator and helps reduce blood stickiness.

What is a composite endpoint in cardiovascular studies?

A combination of multiple events, such as myocardial infarction and revascularization.

What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 atherosclerosis risk factors?

Type 1 is related to lifestyle, while Type 2 refers to other physiological or external factors.

Why is HDL2 considered heart-protective?

It is a specific sub-fraction of HDL that shows the strongest protective effects against coronary heart disease.

What happens to LDL particles when they become 'sdLDL'?

They become smaller and denser, making them more prone to oxidation and faster plaque development.

How do DHA and EPA influence lipid profiles?

They improve lipid profiles by shifting LDL particles to a larger, less atherogenic size.

What is the primary difference between the intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation pathways?

The extrinsic pathway responds quickly to tissue factors from outside injury, while the intrinsic pathway responds more slowly to internal vessel damage.

What is the role of von Willebrand factor (vWf) in clotting?

It finds exposed collagen, stabilizes factor 8, and acts as a key protein in the early stages of clotting.

Which blood test is used to evaluate the intrinsic coagulation pathway?

The aPTT test.

Which blood test is used to evaluate the extrinsic coagulation pathway?

The PT (prothrombin) test, often recorded as an INR.

What is the relationship between high triglyceride levels and cardiovascular risk?

High triglycerides indicate high VLDL particles, which leads to higher circulating apoB, an independent marker for plaque formation.

Define mortality versus morbidity.

Mortality is the rate of death; morbidity is the rate of sickness.

What are the three categories of factors in the PRECEDE-PROCEED model that influence behavior?

Predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors.

What is the function of 'predisposing' factors in health behavior?

Internal motivators, beliefs, and values that exist before an action is taken.

What are 'enabling' factors in the context of health behavior?

External conditions or resources that make a behavior possible, such as access to affordable food.

What are 'reinforcing' factors in the context of health behavior?

Rewards or outcomes after a behavior has started that help turn it into a long-term habit.

What is 'cognitive dissonance' in the context of health information?

A state where individuals receive conflicting information and choose to disengage from the topic.

What does the Health Belief Model suggest is necessary for a person to take health action?

They must perceive a risk, believe the consequences are serious, and believe that taking action will produce a positive effect.

What is the limitation of the Health Belief Model regarding human decision-making?

It assumes people make rational decisions, but individuals are often influenced by external barriers, low SES, or competing priorities.

How does self-efficacy influence health behavior?

It is the belief that one is capable of performing a behavior; higher self-efficacy increases the likelihood of trying and persisting through difficulty.

What is the purpose of the PRECEDE phase in program planning?

To analyze the causes of a health problem by looking at predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors.

What is the purpose of the PROCEED phase in program planning?

To implement the intervention and evaluate its effectiveness.

How does the PRECEDE-PROCEED model approach program design?

It starts with the desired outcome and works backward through the causes to diagnose where change is needed.

What is the relationship between behavior and attitude?

They are bidirectional; attitudes shape behavior, but behaviors can also shape attitudes and emotions.

What are the components of 'cognitive readiness' for behavior change?

Attitude, perceived social norms, self-efficacy, and the psychological readiness to try.

Why is 'large' LDL considered less dangerous than 'small' LDL?

Large LDL is less likely to contribute to atherosclerosis, whereas sdLDL oxidizes more readily.

What is the role of thrombin in the clotting process?

It activates more platelets to amplify the platelet plug and leads to the formation of a stable clot.

What is the primary goal of qualitative data analysis in health research?

To identify themes and group codes that explain phenomena by turning raw data into meaningful findings.

How do saturated fats (SFA) affect clot formation?

Consuming meals high in saturated fats makes the body more prone to clot formation.

What are the three main influences on health behavior according to the predisposing-enabling-reinforcing model?

Predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors.

What is the primary factor for sustained behavior change in health interventions?

Self-efficacy.

Why is knowledge alone often insufficient for changing health behaviors?

Knowing is not the same as doing; interventions must also build skills and support systems to remove barriers.

What is the difference between social and cognitive learning theories in health behavior?

Social learning focuses on the social context and learning from others, while cognitive learning focuses on internal mental processes and reflection.

What is the difference between deductive and inductive coding in qualitative research?

Deductive coding uses pre-set themes from existing frameworks, while inductive coding introduces new themes that emerge from the data.

How do genetics and lifestyle interact regarding disease development?

Genetics set the baseline for risk, but lifestyle choices determine how those genes are expressed and whether the disease develops.

What is the first step in plaque progression that can be mitigated by lifestyle factors?

LDL oxidation.

What does a genotype consist of?

A pair of alleles, with each parent contributing one.

Why does having multiple first-degree relatives with CVD increase risk beyond just genetics?

It reflects a combination of shared genetics, shared behaviors, and shared lifestyle environments.

What is the difference between relative risk and absolute risk?

Relative risk compares an individual's risk to someone without the history, while absolute risk represents the overall risk.

How does a cohort study differ from a case-control study?

A cohort study follows groups over time to see who develops a disease, while a case-control study starts with those who already have the disease and compares them to controls.

When is an odds ratio used instead of relative risk?

When real risk cannot be measured easily, typically when the disease is already present.

What does a hazard ratio measure?

It measures how soon an event occurs compared to others, specifically when timing matters.

How much does the risk of CAD increase for identical twins compared to non-identical twins?

Identical twins have triple the chance of developing CAD.

What is the impact of having a close relative with early-onset CVD on one's own risk?

It increases the individual's risk by 1.5 to 2 times, depending on which relative is affected.

Why is personalized treatment based on genetic and molecular profiles effective?

It allows for targeted interventions that address an individual's specific biological susceptibility.

What role does communication and counseling play in genetic risk assessment?

It translates genetic risk into actionable guidance, helping individuals identify what they can control.

What is the primary limitation of self-report data in behavior research?

It cannot establish direct causality or cause-and-effect relationships.

How does social pressure affect healthy eating behaviors?

Social pressure can undermine efforts to maintain healthy eating habits.

What is the relationship between genes and disease determinism?

Genes influence probability, not inevitability; lifestyle choices can significantly alter outcomes.

What is the benefit of mapping interventions to behavioral determinants?

It helps planners identify the cause of a behavior and design more effective, targeted interventions.

What is the primary struggle identified in patients attempting to improve CVD health?

Sticking with behavior change over time.

What is the significance of identifying behavioral triggers?

It helps researchers understand how specific behaviors translate into increased cardiovascular risk.