land use + fishing apes

based on slides

How does urbanization lead to saltwater intrusion in the hydrologic cycle?

Urbanization leads to the depletion of resources (groundwater) through over-pumping; when freshwater levels in aquifers near the coast drop, saltwater from the ocean moves into the aquifer to fill the void.

How does urbanization affect the carbon cycle?

Through the burning of fossil fuels and landfills, which increases the amount of ( \ce{CO2} ) in the atmosphere.

What are "impervious surfaces" and how do they impact the environment?

They are man-made structures (roads, buildings, parking lots) that do not allow water to reach the soil, which prevents infiltration and leads to flooding and increased runoff.

Define "urban sprawl."

The change in population distribution from high-population density areas to low-density suburbs that spread into rural lands.

What occurs when a pumping well creates a "zone of depression"?

The well is over-pumped, causing the water table to drop lower than the intake of the well, potentially causing it to go "dry."

What is the environmental consequence of "subsidence"?

Areas of land are no longer supported by groundwater due to over-pumping, causing the land to slowly sink or collapse.

Identify three advantages of withdrawing groundwater.

1. Useful for drinking water and irrigation.
   2. Available year-round.
   3. Cheaper to extract than most surface waters.

Identify three disadvantages of withdrawing groundwater.

1. Aquifer depletion.
   2. Sinking of land (subsidence).
   3. Saltwater intrusion.

How do sinkholes form in relation to urbanization and mining?

1. Acid precipitation dissolves limestone creating underground caves.
   2. While caves are full of water, the land is supported.
   3. When the aquifer is over-pumped, an air pocket forms and the ground eventually collapses.

How does urbanization change the natural flow of water regarding infiltration vs. runoff?

Pre-urban areas typically have 50% infiltration and 10% runoff; urban areas shift to 32% infiltration and 43% runoff due to impervious surfaces.

What are the consequences of increased atmospheric ( \ce{CO2} ) mentioned in the slides?

1. Increase in global temperature.
   2. Ocean acidification.
   3. Human health problems.

Which region of the U.S. has the highest average water consumption relative to renewable supply?

The West & Southwest, with an average consumption of 44% of their renewable water.

What are three methods to mitigate the problems related to urban runoff (AP 5.13)?

1. Replacing traditional pavement with permeable (pervious) pavement.
   2. Planting trees.
   3. Building up, not out.

How do "green roofs" help in urban water management?

They involve planting vegetation on roofs to absorb rainwater and decrease albedo (reducing the heat island effect).

What is the primary economic challenge of mining as coal reserves get smaller?

It becomes necessary to access coal through subsurface mining, which is very expensive and dangerous.

Define "ore" in the context of mining.

A rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral that makes it profitable to mine.

What is the difference between high-grade and low-grade ore?

High-grade ore contains large amounts of the desired mineral, while low-grade ore contains low amounts.

When do mineral reserves increase?

1. When new deposits are found.
   2. When technology advances for cheaper removal.
   3. When market prices increase, making difficult deposits profitable.

What is "overburden"?

Large portions of soil and rock that must be removed to gain access to the mineral ore underneath.

Define "tailings" (or "slag").

The unusable rock and waste materials that remain after the desired minerals have been removed from the ore.

What are "spoils banks"?

Piles of ground-up waste rock (tailings) left at a mine site, which are susceptible to erosion and chemical leaching.

How does strip mining affect the environment's susceptibility to erosion?

It removes vegetation from an area, leaving the soil exposed and making the area more susceptible to erosion.

What is the primary environmental danger of "spoils banks" over time?

Rainwater seeps through the tailings, picking up harmful chemicals like mercury, arsenic, and lead, which then contaminate groundwater and nearby streams.

What is "Mountaintop Removal" and where is it common?

A type of surface mining where the top of a mountain is removed to extract low-sulfur coal; it is common in the Appalachian Mountains.

What are "Tar Sands" and what is extracted from them?

Deposits of sand, clay, and water saturated with a dense form of petroleum; Bitumen (an oil product) is extracted using heat.

Identify three hazards associated with subsurface mining.

1. Miners' deaths (cave-ins/explosions).
   2. Subsidence of the land surface.
   3. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD).

What is Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)?

Occurs when rainwater seeps through a mine or tailings and carries sulfuric acid into nearby streams and groundwater, lowering the pH and destroying aquatic life.

What is the purpose of "Smelting"?

Melting ore at high temperatures to separate impurities ("slag") from the molten metal; it requires the use of anthracite coal and releases air pollutants like \( \ce{SO2} \).

What was the 1872 General Mining Act?

A U.S. federal law that authorized and governed prospecting and mining on federal public lands; it contains no environmental protection provisions.

What is a "Superfund Site" and what law designated them?

Polluted locations requiring long-term cleanup of hazardous materials; designated under CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) of 1980.

What does the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977 require?

It requires mining companies to restore (reclaim) surface-mined land by returning the rock layer/topsoil, grading the land, and planting vegetation.

What are three sustainable solutions for the use of nonrenewable minerals?

1. Recycle and reuse 60–80% of mineral resources.
   2. Reduce mining subsidies.
   3. Include environmental costs in product prices (full-cost pricing).

What percentage of the Earth's surface is occupied by forests?

Less than 1/3.

Identify four ecosystem services provided by forests.

1. Influence climate via transpiration.
   2. Act as carbon "sinks" for ( \ce{CO2} ).
   3. Reduce soil erosion.
   4. Provide animal habitats.

Define "clear-cutting."

An unsustainable forestry practice where all trees are removed from an area, leading to habitat fragmentation and massive soil erosion.

What is a "monoculture" in forest management?

A forest where only one variety of tree is planted in rows; these are more prone to insects and disease and support less biodiversity.

Describe "Selective Cutting" in sustainable forestry.

Mature trees are cut individually or in small clusters while the rest of the forest remains intact, promoting biodiversity.

Describe "Shelterwood" harvesting.

Some mature trees are harvested, leaving others to provide protection and shade for young seedlings; once the young trees are established, the remaining mature trees are harvested.

What is the "Urban Heat Island Effect"?

Urban areas are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas because buildings/roads absorb and reflect heat, and there is a lack of trees for shade and evapotranspiration.

How do trees mitigate the Urban Heat Island effect?

They provide shade, release moisture through transpiration (cooling the air), and decrease the marginal cost of pollution.

What is the purpose of a "Prescribed Burn"?

A method where forests are set on fire under controlled conditions to reduce the buildup of flammable vegetation, recycle nutrients, and minimize the risk of high-intensity natural wildfires.

How does the "Pine Beetle" affect forest health?

The beetle introduces "blue stain fungus" to trees, which blocks the flow of water and nutrients, killing the tree within weeks and leading to massive infestations.

What is "Integrated Pest Management" (IPM)?

A science-based approach that combines techniques (identifying, monitoring, evaluating) to manage pests while reducing reliance on chemical pesticides.

What are "Wildlife Corridors"?

Zones that connect isolated unlogged areas, providing escape routes for animals to interbreed and maintain large territories, helping to reduce extinction.

Define "Aquaculture."

The rearing of aquatic organisms (fish, seaweed, mollusks) in controlled environments.

Identify two benefits of aquaculture.

1. Highly efficient.
   2. Requires only small areas of water and little fuel.

Identify three drawbacks of aquaculture.

1. Contamination of wastewater.
   2. Fish escapes (competition/breeding with wild fish).
   3. Increased disease incidences due to high density.

What is the "Tragedy of the Commons" in the context of fishing?

Because no nation owns the open ocean, it is a shared resource that is susceptible to overuse and depletion as individuals act in their own self-interest.

What is "Bycatch"?

Nontarget animals (dolphins, turtles, sharks) caught during commercial fishing; they are often dead and discarded back into the ocean.

How does a "Turtle Excluder Device" (TED) work?

It is a grid of bars in the neck of a trawl net; small animals like shrimp pass through to the bag, while larger animals like sea turtles strike the bars and are ejected through an opening.

What is "Bottom Trawling" and why is it destructive?

A fishing method where heavy nets are dragged along the seafloor; it crushes organisms and destroys bottom habitats, comparable to clear-cutting or strip mining on land.

Define "Purse Seine" fishing.

A large net (up to 2000m long) used to encircle schools of fish and trap them by drawing the bottom shut like a drawstring bag.

What are "Long Lines"?

Fishing lines with thousands of hooks that can be up to 128 miles long; they result in high levels of bycatch (sharks, turtles, seabirds).

What is "Ghost Fishing"?

Abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear (like plastic nets) that continues to indiscriminately catch and kill marine life forever.

What did the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act achieve?

It forced tuna fleets to free dolphins and other sea mammals caught in fishing nets, dramatically dropping bycatch in the U.S. tuna industry.

What is the Magnuson Fishery Conservation Act (1977)?

A U.S. law that established regional councils to develop yearly quotas for fisheries based on Maximum Sustained Yield to prevent overfishing.

What is a "Trophic Cascade" in the context of overfishing?

When top predators are removed (like large cod), their prey prolifereates, which can fundamentally change the entire ecosystem community.

How can global fish catch stability mask population declines?

Fleets use improved technology (sonar, satellite) and travel farther/deeper to catch the same volume of fish, even as the actual population numbers plummet.

What is "Full-cost Pricing" as a solution for unsustainable resource use?

Including the harmful environmental and health costs of extraction and processing in the market price of goods.