SOC 200 B Final Exam Review Flashcards Learn Test

Sociological imagination

term coined by C. Wright Mills; the essence of what makes the discipline distinct is our ability to understand the context of human social action, building on Durkheim's notion of social facts

social issue

problems (situations) that are experienced as personal, but have roots are found in things that extend beyond the individual (e.g., their family background, neighborhood, identity characteristics, historical time period, national economic conditions)

personal issue

things that are a source of worry to the individual, and are the primary result of their own inaction/action

manifest function

known, open, expected circumstances or consequences

latent function

unknown, unintended, unexpected, or hidden circumstances or consequences

sociology

The scientific study of social behavior and human groups.

social facts

manners of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual that are invested with a coercive power over the individual. By virtue of this power, they exercise control over the individual (e.g., the economy, group size, martial status, etc.)

verstechen

the process of interpreting "states of mind" of humans in terms of their motives and intents, efforts to understand the culture and system of symbols that surround social action, empathetic understanding

functionalism

sees society as a living organism in which each part of the living organism contributes to its survival; (how the way that parts of society are structured to maintain its stability)

conflict perspective

made by Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Robert Merton and focus is on social order and moral consensus as the normal state for society, grounded in moral agreement. Society is made up of diverse parts, all of which contribute to the overall operation of society. Functions are associated with the various parts of society and their contributions to the whole must be understood

symbolic interactionism

made by George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, and W.I. Thomas and states language is an important part of inquiry because impacts development of self-consciousness and sense of self and centers on the analysis of socially created symbols which enable us to think abstractly and hypothetically. We tend to react to our subjective interpretation of situations, rather than a fixed objective situation.

3 things highlighted via sociological analysis

We are always participating in "things" larger than ourselves; If we want to understand social life and what happens to people in it, we must understand what it is that we are participating in and how we are participating in it; Individual people are not systems and systems are not individual people, and independence and Interconnections are important.

paradigm

a model or framework within which to view and understand some phenomenon and are never right or wrong but merely more useful or less useful

theory

Sets of statements that seek to explain problems, main questions for inquiry, actions, or behaviors.

W.E.B. DuBois

he believed that knowledge was essential in combating prejudice & achieving tolerance & justice; he challenged the status quo; coined the term double consciousness: the division of an individuals identity into two or more social realities; (used it to describe being black in America)

Max Weber

told his students that they should employ verstehen (understanding or insight); he said we must learn subjective meanings people attach to their actions to fully comprehend the behavior; interested in "social action"; ex: middle finger from a toddler

Karl Marx

(In native Germany); in his analysis, society was fundamentally divided between classes that clash in pursuit of their own class interests; founder of the conflict perspective; (ex: factory as the center of conflict between exploiters & exploited)

Emile Durkheim

argued that sociology enhanced our understanding of behavior with its ability to "understand within a larger context" and not just in individual terms; founder of functionalism; coined the "social facts" and said we must study them as things

Durkheim's study of suicide rates in europe

developed a highly original theory about the relationship between suicide & social factors; he was primarily concerned not with the personalities of individual suicide victims but rather with suicide rates and how they varied from country to country; concluded that the suicide rate of society reflected the extent to which people were or not integrated into the group life of society

reflections from DuBois

the world problem of the 20th century is the color line: the question of the relation of the advanced races of men who happen to be white to the great majority of the underdeveloped/half-developed nations of mankind, the role of race & racism in social life & history, collectively all beliefs & practices about race yield objective consequences for life chances & choices of groups who are defined by racial category, co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

white privilege

rights & immunities granted to people as a particular benefit or favor simply because they are white

examples of white privilege

if I should need to move, I can be pretty sure of renting/purchasing housing in an area where neighbors will be pleasant to me. I don't have to educate my children to be aware of systematic racism. I can easily buy posters, postcards, picture books, etc. featuring people of my race. I can worry about racism w/out being seen as self-interested or self-seeking.

redlining

practice w/origins in financial services operated by govt. agencies/private companies, denying homeownership to racial minorities seeking to purchase in nonwhite areas; entities drew 'red lines' around neighborhoods considered too high risk for home loans

Jim Crow Laws

the consistent problem of limits (state & local laws or ordinances upholding segregation) on social choices until the mid-20th century

Stereotypes

unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that don't recognize individual differences w/in the group

Racism

an ideology/set of interrelated ideas involving at least 3 beliefs
humans may be divided into neatly demarcated physical types; these types/bloodlines are linked to diff. ways of living or cultures, behaviors, personalities; some (race-based) groups are superior to others

racial formation

a socio-historical process in which societies create, change, & at times eliminate racial categories/definitions; forms 'races'; examples are indicative of the socially constructed nature of race: changes in category names used by the US census

racialization

the act of giving a racial character to someone or something: the process of categorizing, marginalizing, or regarding according to race; forms radicalized groups

historical origins and social construction of race

humans have always used "like us" or "not like us" (involves linking internal biological properties)

Franz Boaz

among the first to challenge a prevailing academic consensus that black & brown ppl were a lower order in humanity; advanced a racial theory that distinguished race from culture; demonstrated the unsound methods & logic of scientific racism; worked w/NAACP & DuBois; viewed as an ally for racial equality

one drop rule

used to designate people who had a single drop of "black blood", applied only to American blacks; held important legal implications for individuals: right to vote, own property, to marry the person of your choice; also known as the "traceable amount rule" & "hypo-descent rule" & "one black ancestor rule"

why is race best considered a social construction

more than a quality we can see; involves: the application of meanings (about character, criminality, tendencies) and understandings of observable group distinctions (e.g. skin color); the culmination of a process by which people come to define a group as a \n race, based on physical characteristics, but also historical, cultural, and economic factors." (165); Outcomes. socially created meanings assigned to the visible differences in characteristics (e.g., skin tone, hair texture, body parts,) that contribute to identifiable: Discriminatory behaviors that occur, between individuals, in the arrangements of our social lives, in the policies & practices of our institutions, and that have measurable adverse impacts on numerous areas of social life & life outcomes

what are some myths associated with the concept of race

Race is a social idea, not a scientific concept; No biological basis for distinguishing human 'races'; the % of our genetic profile that is reflected in our external \n appearances ( the basis for how we distinguish racial categories) represents about .01% of our genetic make-up; Geneticists argue that groups called 'racial categories' are too varied to lump together in a scientific way. In DNA studies, no one uses 'white' as a group to look for markers for a certain disease because 'white' has no meaning at the genomic level

exploitation theory

the framework for explaining racial stratification in the US; associated with Marxist tradition; racism operates to keep racial minorities in economically weak structural positions; the ruling elite benefit from the exploitation of wage earners, who are in great supply; through the exploitation of racial and ethnic groups through unnecessarily low wages, capitalists may keep wages artificially low for all wage earners, not just racial minorities; racial minorities are most likely to encounter racism when they begin to compete with the majority group in the labor market

Functionalist functions perspective on race

racially biased practices and beliefs benefit or serve as positive functions for those in structurally powerful positions; racially biased beliefs offer moral justifications for maintaining inequalities, discourage members of minority groups from critiquing or questioning their socially constructed identity, and offer a legitimizing rational for current arrangements

Functionalist dysfunctions perspective on race

dysfunctions also result from racial/ethnic biases and discriminatory practices or arrangements; society does not benefit from the fullest range of talents from individuals; racial and ethnic discrimination creates secondary problems (poverty, higher rate of violent crimes, etc.); societal resources are washed on defending or upholding arrangements and practices that limit full participation of all members

Conflict perspective on race

vested interests perpetuate racial inequality through economic exploitation; class based conflict is inherent and a fundamental part of social interaction; if racial and ethnic conflict is ties to class conflict, class inequality must be reduced to lessen racial and ethnic conflict in society; ongoing disagreements about the significance of "class versus race"

interactionist perspective on race

cooperative interracial contacts can reduce problems such as hostility; focuses on two issues: the role of social interaction in reducing/increasing racial and ethnic hostility and how race and ethnicity are socially constructed.

Prejudice

a negative attitude toward an entire category of people (ethnic/racial group)

Discrimination

denial of opportunities & equal rights to individuals & groups based on some type of arbitrary bias

ethnocentrism

the tendency to assume that ones own culture & way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others

contact hypothesis

Cooperative, sustained interactions between people of different racial, ethnic, national backgrounds tend to minimize \n stereotypes and prejudices; Has many applied implications for groups relations as the national demographics change, creating greater opportunities for engagements

individual racism

personal beliefs & attitudes that may affect the way a person treats people of color

interpersonal racism

flowing from racial prejudice, treating others with discriminatory behavior that ranges from microaggressions to physical violence

institutional racism

policies/behaviors within an organization intended to discriminate against people of color

systemic racism

perpetuated discrimination within a system or institution characterized by historical racist principles or practices

structural racism

a context where cultural values and beliefs in society are so ingrained in daily life that they are seen as "the way things are"

how we live by race

similarities/differences across race/ethnicity in terms of educational attainment and population size
Black population: the black population is growing
grown by more than 10 million since 2000 (29%)
educational attainment:
30.8% of black adults have some college degree
7.8% have a graduate degree
14% have a bachelors degree
31.2% have a high school diploma
White population: largest racial category (204 million people alone)
8.9% decline since 2010
educational attainment:
47.1% of whites have a college degree
13.4% have a graduate degree
27.7% have a bachelors degree
6.2% have a high school diploma
Asian population: population is growing
experienced 18% growth rate in the past 2 decades
highest among all racial & ethnic groups in the US
educational attainment:
ages 25 & older w/at least a bachelors degree (varies by origin of group)
Hispanic population: is increasing
Hispanics made up 18.7% of total US representation, 17 million people (2020)
educational attainment:
16% of all Hispanic 25 years and older have at least a bachelors degree
20% of all US born hispanics who are 25 years or older have at least a bachelors degree

5 milestones of adulthood

Educational attainment, full-time employment, residential independence, marriage, parenthood

what are the four revolutions of the 20th century that have altered how all young people enter adulthood in the 21st century

technology revolution (us economy changes from a manufacturing based economy to a skills based economy; required higher levels of education), sexual revolution (availability of dependable birth control, permitting more sexual relationships with lower risk for pregnancy; contributed to delays in marriage and parenthood), women's movement (shifted ideas about gender roles, more women entering higher education and largely male occupational settings; contributed to delays in traditional markers for adulthood), youth movement (more youth viewing "traditional markers" of adulthood as perils to avoid rather than accomplishments to pursue

gender

A human attribute about which there are meanings, associations, and objective observables that differentiate people, typically according to our sex:

sex

a set of ascribed genetic, anatomical, and hormonal features. A combination of 3 factors: sex chromosomes (XX or XY), internal procreative organs and related features, and external genitalia

gender inequality

discrimination based on sex or gender causing one sex or gender to be routinely privileged or prioritized over another, reflected in wealth, income, and status differences

gender stratification

The unequal distribution of power, privilege, prestige that men and women have in groups, collectives, and societies

gender role socialization

gender socialization prepares humans for gendered roles, it involves learning the structural guidelines and positions expected of people considering sex

gender role

expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, & activities of males or females

gendering

a comprehensive experience that shapes the sense of self, involves all major agents of socialization, and is an evolving societal endeavor and individual experience

side effect discrimination

Practices in one area of life that have negative impacts because they are related to practices in a different area of \n life; The social position of mother—and the broad role related \n expectations— may make it more challenging for women to commit to the work schedule

Bechdel test

an idea born out of a 1985 comic strip by American cartoonist Alison Bechdel; benchmark for assessing the balance in female representation in movies; Elements of the Bechdel Test? Are there at least 2 females in the movie? Do the women talk to each other? Do the women talk about something other than a man?

instrumentality

Men. Practical social role, emphasis on tasks, long-term goals, and concern for external times between the family unit and other social institutions; anchored men to labor force

expressiveness

Female. Focused on maintaining harmony and emotional well-being in the family unit. Anchored women into roles of wife, mother, and household manager

glass ceiling

Social processes based on gender beliefs that limit or hinder progress to full advancement in areas of employment

sticky floor

practices and policies that keep the majority of women in low-paid jobs. Traditionally framed as manifest in pay inequities between females and males in similar positions, with similar work histories, skills, etc

glass escalator

advancement at rates quicker than those observed for women

the motherhood penalty

Pay gap between mothers and non-mothers under age 35 is greater than the gap between men and women. Mothers compared with non-mothers viewed as: less promotable, less likely to be recommended for management, Least likely to be recommended for hire

the second shift

work hours + Home hours

the socialization construction of gender

A socially created set of roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people

Parson's sex role theory

The nuclear family (male earner, female domestic/home based) is the ideal arrangement in modern societies because it is most effective & efficient for reproducing workers (i.e., children). Each member of the nuclear family has an assigned role, script, and set of sanctions for fulfilling/violating these expectations. The adult male/female positions (Instrumental & expressive) in the nuclear family are functional for the whole of society

functionalist perspective on gender inequality

Parsons and Bales argued that in the context of the family, men's and women's specialization in different tasks contributes to social stability of the institution of the family and societal well-being: instrumental v. expressive gendered roles in the family are complementary and functional for the family unit

interactionist perspective on gender inequality

Gender differences are not predetermined but emerge in relation to perceived sex differences in societies and cultures, which in turn shape and/or perpetuate those differences. Focus on gender stratification at the micro level of social life: how we 'do' gender daily and actively. Examine the symbolic meaning & reinforcing effects regarding masculinity and femininity: Males - spacious body spacing, Females - pausing to allow a male to open a door for you. People are not passive recipients of gendering, but work out their gender through meanings related to our sex assignments

conflict perspective on gender inequality

Gender inequality is rooted in the female-male power relationship, men's instrumental skills are more highly rewarded whether on mount or prestige, an unequal power as men occupy the dominant position, see gender difference as a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men)

feminist perspective on gender inequality

Offers a critique of women's position in society and culture, but there is no one 'feminist' perspective on gender. A deep intellectual history in sociology, beginning Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of women (1792); Shares much with the conflict perspective but with greater promotion of political engagement; African American feminist Patricia Hill Collins; 2 key concept

socialist feminism

unequal gender relations are the basis of all life chances and choices, but gender and social class positions intersect to create fundamental oppression of women. Under capitalism, exceptional disadvantages characterize the experiences of women in the job market and family. Capitalists (majority male) benefit from women's subordination. Do not view policy reforms as the solution to gender inequalities because societal and economic structures are fundamentally flawed. Claim that the emphasis on binary gender differences is socially harmful: pits men v. women for scarce resources (e.g., in the home the resource of leisure time, social regard). Contributes to the relatively greater value of men's work and devaluation of women's work

liberal feminism

Gender inequality is grounded in social and cultural attitudes. Identify several factors that contribute to gender inequalities. Sexism and discrimination in the workplace, Media, entertainment industry (e.g., feature films). Advocate for equal opportunities for women through legislation and other democratic approaches, working through existing political and economic systems

intersectionality

the overlapping and interdependent system of advantage and disadvantage that positions people in society on the basis of race, class, gender, sex, and ethnicity. Overemphasis on any one dimension hinders the ability to see the impact of other areas

social institutions

an organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs

cultural universals

a general practice found in every culture

functionalist perspective on social institutions

emphasize how social institutions fulfill essential societal needs; replacing personnel (families, governments by managing immigration), teaching new members (families, schools, economy via occupational positions), preserving social order (families via child discipline, regulation of sexual behaviors, religion via outlining values and norms)

conflict perspective on social institutions

social institutions tend to maintain the privileges of the most powerful social positions/groups; social institutions reflect the gendered, class, and race environments of society and this reflect structured social inequalities

interactionist perspective on social institutions

our social behaviors as individuals is shaped by the roles and social positions we inhabit, the groups we participate in, and the institutions we work or live within

family

a set of people related by blood, marriage, or adoption who share the primary relationship for reproduction and caring for members of society

4 dimensions of family

(quantitative) two or more individuals who (longevity in terms of emotional and/or physical closeness) maintain an intimate relationship that they expect will last indefinitely - except for parent/child relationships - and who (shared domicile) live under the same roof (when possible, desired) and (shared resources) pool their incomes and household labors

nuclear family

1-2 parents and their child(ren)

extended family

2+ adult generations that may share a residence and family tasks

monogamy

one man, one woman married to each other

serial monogamy

one spouse at a time, but having a series of monogamous relationships throughout the life course

polygamy

a form of marriage in which an individual may have several husbands or wives simultaneously.

polygyny

a form of polygamy in which a husband may have several wives at the same time

polyandry

a form of polygamy in which women may have several husbands at the same time

patrilineal descent

tracing family ties through males or father's relatives

matrilineal descent

tracing family ties through females or mother's relatives

six functions of the family

reproduction, protection, socialization, regulation of sexual behavior, affection and companionship, and provision of social status

conflict perspective on the family

the family as a perpetuator of inequality. Transmission of poverty or wealth across generations

interactionist perspective on the family

relationships among family members

functionalist perspective on the family

the family as a contributor to social stability, roles of family members

feminist perspective on the family

the family as a facilitator of gender role norms. Female-headed household issues

the marriage price

A rational choice marriage model predicts that marriage decisions are shaped by perceived marriage price which is excess services provided by wives/husbands above what would be expected in an equitable marriage.

Big pictures in marriage and childbearing

More first marriages are between partners of different races. The average age for childbearing is now younger than the average age for marriage. By age 25, 44% of women have had a baby, while only 38% have married. In 1960, 5.3% of all births were to unmarried women whereas in 2015, 40.3% of all births were to unmarries women. The greatest contribution to this rise has been in the rate of births in the context of cohabiting couples: most births to unmarries women occur in the context of cohabitation. Most unwed mothers are not teen mothers. Today, only 23% of all unmarries births are to teenagers, 60% are to women in their twenties. Most of use marry, but we are marrying later in 2019 peak age at first marriage for women was 28, in 1990 it was 24, and in 1960 it was around 20. Current median age at 1st marriage is 28 for women and 30 for men. Women who wait until age 30 to marry make much more money. Women with a college degree who wait to marry until at least thirty, and high-school-educated women without a degree who also wait until thirty, earn more than those who marry at younger ages. In 2013, a record-high 12% of newlyweds married someone of a different race and 6.3% of all marriages were between spouses of different races. In 2016, 10.2% of all couples are interracial.

the merry go round pattern marriage in the US

the US has the highest rates of marriage and divorce compared with other Global North nations. We have the highest percentage of people projected to marry, yet nearly hald of all marriages end in divorce. Americans "step on and off the carousel of intimate partnerships" more than in other societies, frequent marriage and frequent divorce, and more short-term cohabiting relationships.

how the US compares globally in terms of having a national family leave policy

The US has no national leave policy for working parents. 88% of all working women have no access to paid leave after childbirth. Half of new mothers are ineligible for the Family Medical Leave Act which is unpaid leave. Only 8 total counties offer no national leave policy for new mothers. 11% of all Americans employed by private companies have access to paid family leave and 16% of state and federal employees have access to paid family leave.