AP Psychology: Unit 2

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

algorithm

A systematic, step-by-step series of rules or procedures that guarantees solving a particular problem. Examples: formulas, equations, flowcharts

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

insight

sudden realization of a problem's solution; the "aha moment"

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving

mental set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

language

A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage (Holophrase)

the stage in speech development from about age 1 during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

telegraphic speech (two-word phase)

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegraph message--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words; around age 2

convergent thinking

thinking that brings together information focussed on solving a problem (especially solving problems that have a single correct solution)

divergent thinking

a type of thinking that is associated with creativity - seeing lots of solutions to a problem

trial and error

approach to problem solving that involves randomly trying possible solutions and discarding those that fail to solve the problem

memory

persistence of learning over time; involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system (for example, by extracting meaning)

storage

Maintaining encoded information in memory over time.

retrieval

Process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly (about 20-30 seconds), such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

explicit memory

Information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory.

implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection; also called nondeclarative memory. Includes procedural memories.

effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over. This facilitates deep processing.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test with no "word bank".

recognition

A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

priming

Activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

mood-dependent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

state-dependent memory

Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same (e.g., drug state, level of physiological arousal, etc.)

serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new (explicit) memories.

retrograde amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past.

proactive interference

Forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material.

retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

In psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced into the unconscious, preventing their conscious recollection.

misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

prospective memory

Remembering to do things in the future

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

forgetting curve

the pattern of storage decay described by Ebbinghaus; retention of information drops off quickly, then stabilizes, as time passes after learning

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well; came up with the famous 'forgetting curve'

method of loci

type of mnemonic that exploits the ease with which we recall layouts of familiar locations; remembering items on a list by visualizing them placed in familiar locations

long term memory (LTM)

Relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory.

metacognition

"Thinking about thinking," or one's awareness of one's own thought processes or memory.

next-in-line effect

tendency to forget what was said by the person immediately before you during introductions or saying words

procedural memory

A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

structural encoding

relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus, such as the font or capitalization of the word

phonemic encoding

The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

semantic encoding

The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas; fostered by expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environments

intuition

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

aphasia

Disturbance in language comprehension or production, often as a result of a stroke.

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

A specialised area in the left temporal lobe which is involved with comprehending the sounds of human speech

Multi-Store Model of Memory

A model for describing memory in which there are three distinguishable kinds of memory storage (sensory, short term (working), long term) through which info passes in a sequential way as it is processed.

episodic memory

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences.

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

sensitive period hypothesis

although there is a optimal age for second language learning, it can happen outside that period, just not as well

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

a storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code

autobiographical memory

a special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a memory to long-term, mostly happens during sleep

hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories - used as a memory aid to see relationships amongst things

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age, usually 3

autobiographic memory

The system of memories that individuals hold about their personal experiences, including memories of places, events, episodes and people that have featured in their lives.

filter theory

attempts to explain how we selectively attend to the most important information

Gambler's Fallacy

incorrectly believing that a chance process is self-correcting in that an event that has not occurred for a while is more likely to occur

Sunk cost fallacy

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

imagination inflation

the increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; ONE of its functions is muscle memory and involved in implicit memories

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. Plays a role in emotional memories.

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes