ENVI Test #2

What are the agricultural practices Western countries (the U.S.) use?

• try to solve hunger with technology

• do this through high in-puts like fertilizers, chemicals, nitrogens, more water, pesticides, herbicides, machinery (produces more fossil fuels)

• can have negative effects on the environment

what are the agricultural practices Burkina Faso use?

• aligned with argo-ecological agriculture (trying to work with the environment)( uses more natural solutions rather than using chemicals)

• built ledges to slow runoff and capture water and nutrients also prevent erosion by holding onto soil

how did we discuss the comparison between overall U.S. agriculture and agriculture in Burkina Faso?

sometimes what the west or U.S. does, Isn’t always the best solution for all other countries or the environment

what was the Green Revolution?

Research happening scientists in the west, they were trying to increase the yield in other countries, so they created different varieties of crops to yield more.

(utilized modern irrigation systems, plant genetics, and chemical fertilizers and pesticides to increase food production and reduce poverty and hunger in developing countries)

definition of chronic undernutrition or hunger…

people who cannot grow or buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs. Which threaten their ability to live healthy and productive lives.

definition of malnourishment…

nutritional imbalance caused by a lack of specific dietary components or an inability to absorb or utilize essential nutrients.

macronutrients…

carbs, fats, and proteins

micronutrients…

vitamins and minerals

problems that arise when we lack access to certain micro nutrients?

• 2 billion people suffer from a deficiency in vitamins or minerals

• extreme lack of vitamin A can lead to blindness

• iodine helps the function of thyroid and produces hormones

malnourishment numbers are…

• falling. there is still pockets of the world that this is still an issue.

• environmental factors like drought, major climate changes, pest that come through, war can all lead to issues with chronic undernutrition

definition of food deserts…

• area that lacks nutritious food

• stores that don’t sell fruits and vegetables and sell more processed foods.

• rural areas that lack grocery stores

• lots of convenience stores

definition of food swamps…

• where you have too much inundation or bad food

• tons of convenience stores and fast food

• north side of Binghamton used to be considered a food desert/ also food swamp (not a lot of healthy options)

what are some organizations trying to address these issues in the Binghamton area?

• Great Good Grocery (non-profit)

• VINES (trying to reverse food deserts and food swamps)

• CSA (Community Supported Agriculture) (buying a share of the farm and you get a supply of fruits and veggies in return)

• Food Pantry on Binghamton Campus

what are some trends we see in food production and diet?

• antibiotic use

• when you have animals living really close together, it is easier for diseases to spread

• they then give them antibiotics and then they become antibiotic resistant

• can be much more difficult to resist bacteria

• CAFOS also negatively effects waste that can get into soil and run off water which can lead to pollution concerns too

how do different countries rank in the production/consumption of products we went over?

• China is the top meat producer

• top consumers are the U.S., Australia, Argentina

• increase in wealth, increase in consumption of meat

what are CAFOS? what are problems associated with them?

• CAFOS (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations) are agricultural meat, dairy, or egg facilities where animals are kept and raised in confinement instead of grazing or eating in pastures, fields, or on range lands, animals are given food.

• CAFOS negatively affects waste since waste can get into soil, and run off water which can lead to pollution concerns too.

definition of fishery…

concentration of wild aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a given ocean or inland body of water.

definition of aquaculture

• performing domestication, human control, fish in different pens that you raise and feed then harvest.

• can also be on land in pools

• these fish are being fed other fish coming from wild fisheries

issues with fisheries…

we over fished and the population dropped and cannot fish in this way that we used to.

issues with aquaculture…

have to feed the fish in these tanks which disrupts trophic levels because it takes a lot of lower tropic fish and then feed them to the ones in the tank. produces a lot of waste.

what are some innovations we discussed that address some of the problems related to fisheries and aquaculture?

• monitoring food, cleanliness of water, PH levels

• grow the fish first in tanks on land and then transition them to netted enclosures in the ocean

• feed them fish pellets which have less wild fish in them, choosing a specific area that has natural flushing so wast gets dispersed, help prevent over feeding, production of waste, and have underwater cameras.

definition of trawling…

dragging a large net along the seafloor

definition of purse-seine fishing…

catch surface-dwelling species (planes will spot a school of fish and then boats will inclose the fish in nets)

definition of long-lining…

lines with baited hooks — swordfish, tuna, sharks, halibut, and cod

definition of bycatch…

unwanted fish. Can be smaller fish, lower on the tropic level. Can also be dolphins or sea turtles.

definition of farm subsidies…

government payments or other types of support intended to help farmers stay in business.

concerns/ issues with subsidies…

• generally, our subsidies go to the crops we grow the most off, inputs or other types of processed food. ex. corn, soy, and canola.

• government subsidies go to farmers that are already making a lot of money, shouldn’t we give subsidies to smaller farmers who are growing a greater variety of crops? or farmers that aren’t making a lot of money.

how do soil conservation programs such as the Conservation Reserve Program relate to subsidies and concerns tied to them?

• Conservation Reserve Program is a subsides program (the government pays to take some of your land so that you do not farm on it) essentially to prevent soil erosion

• cons: only certain land is eligible, takes land out of production, wildlife consideration, and native vegetation not mandatory.

what are the general components of the food system?

• production (grown, harvest, pack)

• processing (individual)

• distribution and transportation (local, regional, global)

• marketing (food, access)

• markets and purchasing (food access)

• preparation and consumption (food choices)

• waste recovery and nutrient cycling

what are examples of environmental pressures that affects farmer decision-making?

• climate change (timing and extent of temperature changes, precipitation changes, and natural disasters)

• soil types and their associated deficiencies/ limitation and loss potential

• plant and animal pests

• plant diseases

what are examples of financial realities that affects farmer decision-making?

• cost of seed

• regulation costs

• loss from environmental pressures

• harvesting crops (using machines)

• transportation costs and processing opportunities (if your selling directly to consumers, what are you paying?)

• market value — if the market is flooded with that product

• agreement with companies

what are examples of social dynamics that affects farmer decision-making?

• demand for the product

• origin or DNA modifications (might change if a farmer sells their product or not)

• nutrition profile (vitamin/ minerals, sugars and fats)

• quality/appearance (not damaged or blemished and looks clean)

• taste (sweeter)

overview of the history of domestication of tomatoes

Chile was where the first wild species of tomato was found. They discovered that the tomato made a really good food crop, so they domesticated it. People traveled to Chile and wanted to bring back tomatoes with them, this lead to tomatoes then traveling to other parts of the world.

how chromosomes play into the process of domestication of tomatoes.

• tomato genetics: 12 pairs of chromosomes

• 2,000 genes or so on these chromosomes

How does DNA play into the process of domestication of tomatoes?

• their all made of DNA

how do genes play in the process of domestication of tomatoes?

• genes are transcribed to create a protein

• 2,000 genes or so on these chromosomes

how does protein play in the process of domestication of tomatoes?

• proteins are the ones doing the work in the cell to lead to different traits

• gene being read →protein→ trait

how does mutation play in the process of domestication of tomatoes?

• mutation is alteration of DNA (change in genotype) can lead to a different type of trait.

• traits related to color, taste, how many seeds, etc all related to domesticating tomatoes.

cross breeding is when…

• combine two sexually compatible species to create a variety with the desired traits of parents.

• uses breeding only to get existing desirable traits into one plant variety

• resulting plants will have the same number of chromosomes and genes as the starting plants

• any genetic and trait differences are the results of which version of each DNA segment they have

• key to cross breeding is that it takes a long time, and can take breeding multiple generation to get the desirable result.

• can get undesirable phenotypes.

transgenesis is when…

• the use of laboratory processes and breeding to make a trait form another organism available in a plant variety (laboratory techniques that add in new genes that aren’t from the original species)

• resulting plant will have the same number of chromosomes as the starting plant, but there will be a smaller number of new genes (perhaps 1-4) in the plant.

• genetic and trait differences are the result of which version of each DNA segments they have AND the added transgene.

gene editing is the…

• use of an enzyme system to modify DNA within the cell

• just working within the genome of the plant we are trying to change

• genome editing uses laboratory, plant growth, and breeding processes to help combine existing genes in ways that are desirable

• resulting plants will have the same number of chromosomes and genes as the starting plants, though there might be times when gene editing is utilized to delete one of the thousands or tens of thousands of genes in a plant

• any genetic and trait differences are the result of which version of each DNA segments they have

gene editing tomato example…

to add a higher amount go vitamin D to the tomatoes for health benefits. Social piece of farmer’s goal since its production is due to health.

definition of enzyme…

help speed up chemical reactions (proteins)

cross breeding tomato example…

the galaxy suite tomato; The flavor is really bright, citrusy, and sweet which is appealing to customers. When the tomato is ripe and juicy, they stay plump and very vegetative. Social (appealing to customer interest and aesthetic appeal) and economic piece of farmers goal.

transgenesis tomato example…

was created for higher anti-oxidant levels. Dr. Martin’s team attained a gene from a Snapdragon plant and combined the gene with a fruit promoter (help gene get expressed in fruit) then introduced this gene into the tomato cell and got it to integrate within the tomatoes DNA. This gave the tomato a purplish color. Social piece of farmers goal because it is tied to consumer health.

how do public perceptions and policy (including labeling) relate to different genetic modification techniques?

what is soil?

complex mixture of rock pieces, particles, minerals, nutrients, decaying organic matter, water, air, and living organisms that support plant and animal life

what is organic matter?

organic meaning carbon, the carbon comes from living things like decaying plants and animals.

what is the largest particle size in soil?

sand

what is the second smallest particle size in soil?

silt

what is the smallest particle size in soil?

clay

sandy soils are…

good in the sense that roots can grow easily through the sand, but can be problematic because water can run through too easily (space between particles are too big)

soils with lots of clay…

can be more difficult for roots to grow, but can hold water better

how is soil textures determined?

determined by percentage of weight of sand, silt, and clay

definition of loam…

well-suited for plant growth because it allows water to pass through sand (40), silt (40) and clay (20)

the organic layer of soil is…

• partly decomposed plant material (leaves, twigs and mosses)

• newest layer of soil (partly decomposed plant level, decomposers and detritivores)

the topsoil layer of soil is…

• minerals soil from the plant material and some organic

• ideal soil levels for farming are going to have a thick layer of organic layer and topsoil.

the subsoil layer in soil is…

inorganic matter — broken down rock — more clay (inorganic material)

the parent material layer in soil is…

weathered rock (sand, windblown silt, bedrock, other mineral material on which the soil is built)

the bedrock layer in soil is…

broken down more in parent piece. the first bedrock layer is solid.

issues related to the carbon biochemical cycle are…

• climate change: too much carbon in the air/ atmosphere.

• fossil fuels: organisms that lived thousands of years ago, now in the ground with tons of stored carbon. Burning fossil fuels is burning the stored carbon and putting it back into the atmosphere.

• problem with agriculture: we are cutting down forests, clearing land to grow crops, and by doing that we are getting rid of carbon storage places (carbon sinks) and can release carbon into the atmosphere

photosynthesis for carbon in the carbon cycle…

taking carbon out of the atmosphere in order to make food.

• plants store that carbon in themselves. when they die and decompose, that carbon can be transferred into the soil → decomposers then break it down and it becomes inorganic material and can be transferred into oceans, etc.

respiration for carbon in the carbon cycle…

all living things, including plants, respire, releasing carbon back into the air.

key points of nitrogen cycle

• nitrogen gas makes up 78% of the volume in the atmosphere

• plants need nitrogen to grow and to perform photosynthesis, but cannot get it directly from the atmosphere

• plants can capture nitrogen from lighting strikes (changes the form of nitrogen so plants can take it in) and bacteria in the soil (nitrogen-fixing bacteria are able to change the form of nitrogen)

• farmers can add more nitrogen to the soil by planting specific plants like lagoons that have nitrogen-fixing bacteria to make it more readily for plants

• synthetic fertilizer can be added into soil so plants can get nitrogen

• problem with synthetic fertilizer: we add too much fertilizer to our fields and plants can’t take it all in and the fertilizer washes away.

key points of phosphorus cycle…

• phosphate is an important nutrient for plant growth

• phosphate rocks contain phosphate ions

• water runs over rocks (erodes part of that rock)

• and deposits those phosphate ions

• usually a limiting factor in soil

• when they die and decompose into the soil, those nutrients go back into the soil

• if soil continues to blow away or erode, then we will need more synthetics in our agriculture

• leaving leaves on the ground

definition of eutrophication and what it leads to…

excessive richness of nutrients in a body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life (aglae) and death of animal life from lack of oxygen (lots of fish that die).

definition of erosion…

the movement/ transport away of soil usually by wind or water. Since really rich material that is vital for good healthy plants is now gone, major droughts can make erosion worse. Many farms that lose top layers of soil will add nitrogen and phosphorus to keep it healthy.

historical context of farming and erosion we discussed in class…

the Dust Bowl was due to farmers tilling about 32 million acres of land in the Great Plains in 1909-1929. In the 1930’s there was severe drought and high winds which created dust storms. Effects of storms were buried homes and equipment, health issues, intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression, and weren’t able to farm on the land anymore. This led to mass migration out west (California and Washington).

the Dust Bowl led to the establishment of the Soil Erosion Service, Conservation Reserve Program, and the Prairie States Forestry Project.

definition of tilling…

turning over the land/ soil. Breaking it up to aerate the soil and for seeds to germinate. Can lead to soil drying out much faster.

definition of soil salinization…

The accumulation of salts in the upper soil layers. Watering too much allows the water to sit on the top of that soil, evaporate, and leave all the salt behind and kill the plants.

definition of water logging…

The accumulation of water underground, raising the water table. This also deprives the plants of oxygen.

definition of pesticides…

Chemicals that kills organisms that we consider to be pests. Pesticides are all different based off of their chemical compositions based on what they attack and how long they last in the environment.

insecticides kill…

insects

herbicides kill…

weeds

fungicides kill…

fungi

rodenticides kill…

rodents

advantages to pesticides…

• enable farmers to have high yields

• efficient, support farmers lively hood

• inexpensive

• work quickly in addressing the issue at hand

• adopted readily because of these advantages

disadvantages to pesticides…

• develop genetic resistance → make a new form of pesticide

• killing non-target organisms (bees dying from certain pesticides)

• runoff into water (pollution)

• human health concerns: people spraying them, the environment, and consuming

organophosphate pesticide…

break down quickly, don’t persist in the environment for a long time (safer)

chlorinated hydrocarbons pesticides…

DDT, persists in the environment, be stored in fatty tissue of some organisms, toxic

neonicotinoids pesticides…

toxic, slower to break down, the seed is coated in the pesticide, impact on bees.

what trends did we see in relation to small farms referencing the figure we discussed in class?

500 million family farms produce 80% of food consumed worldwide. Small family farms are what produces a lot of our food. 88% of farms in the U.S. are small farms.

what did we discuss related to soil and the Zelikova reading?

we’ve lost billions of metric tons of carbon from soil and this is due to conversion of land. Forests and prairies (really rich grass lands) have turned into agricultural land or cities. Zelikova find that microbes let carbon move around and plants can absorb carbon from the atmosphere and the soil to help restore the soil (“feed the microbes”).

how does terracing conserve topsoil?

covering steeply sloped land that is used to create different levels/ rigid to limit soil erosion by slowing and reducing the energy of runoff. Some collect drainage water and direct the flow of water underground, rather than overland as runoff.

how does contour planting conserve topsoil?

steeply sloped land, planting, and plowing crops that go perpendicular to that slope, rather than up and down. Prevents erosion because of the slope, other plants can catch the water and nutrients.

how does strip-cropping with cover crop conserve topsoil?

instead of keeping rows between crops bare, they are encouraging you to plant a cover crop with it. This keeps soil covered to help prevent erosion for elements like wind and water. Ex. Alfalfa and Clover.

how does alley cropping/ Agroforestry help conserve topsoil?

Process where you also have trees as apart of your production. Tress help with soil retention (have long and complex root structures), help with wind erosion, can potentially help with water loss, may help with really fast water evaporation, thermoregulation and added benefit could be more biodiversity.

organic fertilizers are…

specifically derived from plant or animal sources.

organic fertilizers and soil fertility…

• animal manure (adds organic nitrogen which can help in the growth of beneficial bacteria)

• green manure (plant clippings onto your field, increases organic matter, increases in nitrogen that microbes break down)

• compost (specifically breaking down organic matter, food waste, feeding more microbes to your soil)

crop rotation is…

the best way to restore fertility in soils is to not just replant the same crop every year, but instead switch up types of crops to prevent erosion and poor crop production.

alfalfa (lagoon) is

• considered a nitrogen fixing crop

• takes nitrogen from atmosphere that has bacteria as a part of their root structure that are able to fixate nitrogen.

what are some alternatives to synthetic pesticides?

biological controls such as

• natural predators

• parasites

• disease causing bacteria and viruses

  in order to control what ever pest problem you have

what are some potential problems with alternatives to synthetic pesticides (biological control)?

• might end up becoming a pest or an invasive species itself

• difficult to control

• difficult to apply in mass

• slower acting than pesticides

what is an example of a biological control?

lady bugs help in controlling certain pest populations.

what is integrated pest management?

crops and pest are evaluated as parts of an ecosystem. this includes biological controls, cultivation controls (altering planting times), and possibly applying small amounts of pesticides

what do the different pieces of the pyramid mean related to integrated pest management?

purpose is to introduce these steps first before relying on chemical use.

what is hydroponics?

exposing roots to nutrient rich water supplement instead of soil.

what are some benefits of hydroponics?

• no nitrate runoffs into rives or lakes (pollution)

• plants grow more effectively under more wavelengths of light (red and blue waves)

• water conservation

• no pesticides

• use of space (stacking plants vertically)

what is a drawback of hydroponics?

high electric bills

what are aquaponic systems?

exposing roots to nutrient rich water but adding fish to the system. This can nourish the plants from the fishes waste water.

1) clean water is contaminated with fish food and waste

2) water containing ammonia from fish food and waste is pumped into the grow bed

3) bacteria turns the ammonia first into nitrites and then nitrates

4) plants absorb the nitrates as plant food

5) clean water is siphoned into the fish tank with ammonia removed