AP Psych Unit 2

perception

process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, allowing us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

uses sensory input to interpret sensory info

top-down processing

uses prior knowledge to interpret sensory info

schemas

mental frameworks that help organize and interpret info

perceptual set

a readiness to perceive things a certain way based on expectations

gestalt psychology

how people naturally organize sensory info into wholes

attention

mental focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others

selective attention

focusing on one thing among many distractions

cocktail party effect

ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy room

inattentional blindness

failing to notice visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

retinal disparity

difference between images in the left and right eyes; the brain uses this difference to calculate depth

convergence

As objects get closer, our eyes turn inward. The brain interprets this muscle movement as depth cue

monocular cues

depth cues that can be seen with just one eye

relative size

objects that appear smaller are perceived as farther away

interposition

overlapping object is perceived as closer

texture gradient

objects with finer details are seen as closer

relative clarity

blurry objects seem farther away

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, like railroad tracks

perceptual constancies

recognizing objects as constant despite changes

apparent motion

perception of movement when there is none

phi phenomenon

lights blinking in sequence create illusion of movement

autokinetic effect

stationery point of light appears to move in dark room because of minor eye movements

perceptual adaptation

brain’s ability to adjust to altered sensory environments

cognition

mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using

info

metacognition

thinking about thinking

concept

mental groupings of similar things

prototype

most typical example in a concept

assimilation

new info fits in schema

accommodation

new info forces you to change schema

algorithms

step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution

heuristics

mental shortcuts that save time but don’t always lead to the right answer

rep. heuristics

judge how likely something is based on how well it matches a prototype

avail. heuristics

judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind

priming

exposure to one thing influences your response to another

framing

how info is worded affects choices

gambler’s fallacy

believing that past events affect future outcomes

sunk-cost fallacy

sticking with a bad choice because you’ve already invested

mental set

using the same solutions that worked before even if ineffective now

functional fixedness

seeing objects as having only their usual function

divergent thinking

generating multiple solutions to a problem

convergent thinking

narrowing down options to find the single best solution

executive functions

high-level mental processes that help us control impulses

insight

sudden realization of a problem’s solution

confirmation bias

tendency to see information that supports one's existing beliefs

fixation

inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective; an obstacle to problem-solving

memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info

recall

retrieving info that is not currently in your conscious awareness

recognition

identifying items previously learned

relearning

learning something faster when you learn it a second time

encoding

process of getting information into the memory system

storage

process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; brain's natural mode of information processing

sensory memory

immediate, brief recording of sensory information in the memory system (fraction of a second)

short-term memory

memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is either forgotten or stored

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

working memory

newer model of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming information and retrieved long-term information

central executive

component of working memory that focuses attention and controls the flow of information

phonological loop

component of working memory that stores and rehearses auditory/verbal information

visuospatial sketchpad

component of working memory that stores and manipulates visual and spatial information

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons, which may contribute to memory formation

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires effort

automatic processing

encoding without effort (e.g., space, time, frequency)

implicit memory

retention without of conscious recollection (non-declarative memory)

iconic memory

sensory memory of visual stimuli (fraction of a second)

echoic memory

sensory memory of auditory stimuli (3 or 4 seconds)

shallow processing

encoding on basic level

deep processing

encoding semantically

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts

episodic memory

explicit memory of experiences

hippocampus

neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

memory consolidation

neural storage of a long-term memory; activated during deep sleep

flashbulb memory

clear memory of an emotionally significant moment

encoding specificity principle

idea that cues specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

interleaving

mixing up different subjects or topics during study sessions to improve long-term retention

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

inability to recall old memories

proactive interference

old info interferes with new learning

retroactive interference

new learning interferes with old info

repression

psychoanalytic theory, forget to defend against bad emotions

reconsolidation

process where previously stored memories, when retrieved, are altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

getting the wrong source to an event we have experienced

intelligence

mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman, show specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

factor analysis

statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that show a person's total score

fluid intelligence (Gf)

ability to reason speedily and abstractly; decreases with age

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; increases with age

cattel-horn-carroll (CHC) theory

comprehensive, three-stratum hierarchical model of intelligence, including $g$ and various broad and narrow abilities

savant syndrome

condition where a person limited in mental ability has an exceptional skill

emotional intelligence

ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

intelligence test

method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others

achievement test

test for what a person has learned

aptitude test

test to predict a person’s future performance

mental age

level of performance typically associated with a chronological age