Key Concepts in Statistics and Sampling Techniques

Sampling

statistically selecting and observing members of a group or population who are taken to be representative of the rest of the group

Generalizations

claims that take as their evidence a sample drawn from a population, and advance a conclusion about members of the entire population

Sample

the members of a group actually observed or consulted during the sampling process

Property

a quality projected from the sample to the population

Extent

the portion of the population that is said to exhibit the property

Stratified Sample

a sample that adequately reflects the various groups that introduce variation within the population

Random Sample

every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample

Mean

the arithmetical average

Mode

the most frequently occurring observation or response in a sample

Median

the figure that exactly divides the top half from the bottom half in a range of figures

Induction

a method of reasoning that moves from specific observations to a general conclusion.

Median

the figure that exactly divides the top half from the bottom half in a range of figures

Bias

prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair.

Scholarly Journals

feature essays and studies by experts, scholars, and researchers who are qualified to conduct research in their own field

Special­/Interest Periodicals

focus on a specific topic but are written for wider audiences than scholarly journals are

Popular Magazines

intended to provide pleasure reading and advice on a range of personal and professional issues

A reasonable argument exhibits

Support, Validity, Linguistic Consistency

Acceptance:

the agreement to accept the argument as presented; to find it persuasive, or at least lacking any major flaw

Consideration:

an agreement to think about the argument further, to withhold any final judgment about its quality for the time being

Refutation:

a thoroughly successful response to an argument, one that clearly demonstrates a damaging flaw to the satisfaction of a relatively objective listener or reader

Repudiation:

dismissal without serious consideration

Rebuttal:

a counter­argument, a reasoned answer that addresses specific points or evidence advanced in the original argument

Reservation:

first statement in the argument that acknowledges the existence of an argument, evidence, or an attitude opposing the conclusion being advanced

Virtues:

a quality that assists in making ethically good choices

Dialogic thinking

two-sideded thinking with others by exploring different viewpoint and deeper collective understanding

Situational Ethics

moral framework asserting that ethical decisions should be based on the specific context of a situation rather than on absolute rules

Argumentativeness:

to engage in argument by presenting and defending one’s views while responding to opposing perspectives

Situational ethics:

to evaluate the morality of an action based on the specific context or circumstances, rather than applying fixed moral rules.

Standardizing

Rendering each statement, or implied statement, in the argument as a complete sentence and changing indefinite references such as pronouns to the definite nouns they represent

Diagramming

mapping the argument, through only letters assigned during scanning, and drawing lines from reasons to the conclusions they support

Analyzing

breaking down an argument into its component parts to understand its structure, evaluate its reasoning, and assess its effectiveness.

Supplying missing premises

process of identifying and articulating the unstated reasons or assumptions that an argument relies on (to make reasoning more complete and logically valid.)

Scanning

identifying statements in an argument, as well as underlining indicators and cues

inductive arguments

these arguments move from a particular observations to the formulation of general principle conclusions

deductive arguments

these arguments move from general principles to specific conclusions if premises are true.

complementary reasons

pairs of reasons that must work together to support a conclusion; neither is sufficient on its own

intermediate conclusion

conclusions that also functions as a reason supporting a further conclusion in an argument

diagrams

visual representations of an argument’s structure, showing how reasons support conclusions using labeled statements and connecting lines

Claim

Toulmin’s term for an arguement’s conclusion"

Warrant

the underlying principle, assumption, or reasoning that connects the data to the claim/conclusion

Data

the facts, evidence, or reasons offered to support the claim.

Backing

additional support or justification provided to strengthen the warrant

Qualifier

a word or phrase that indicates the strength or degree of certainty of the claim

Indicator

a word phrase that signals a reason or a conclusion

conclusion

a claim that has been reached by a process of reasoning

reason

a statement advanced for the purpose of establishing a claim

cue

a word that signals something about the content of an argument, other than a reason or conclusion (moreover, however, etc.)

arguement

a claim advanced with a reason or reasons in its support