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extension
PCR heated again and DNA is copied billions of times by TAQ polymerase.
annealing
PCR is cooled and nucleotides are added.
denaturation
PCR is heated and DNA strands are separated.
proteins are ____, building blocks are ____
polymers; amino acids
hydrophobic amino acids are found on the?
interior of a protein
hydrophillic amino acids are found on the?
exterior of a protein
non polar side chains mainly have
carbons and hydrogens
polar side chains mainly have
oxygens and nitrogens
acidic side chains are
negatively charged
basic side chains are
positively charged
glycine
second H atom as side chain
proline
forms a ring with peptide backbone
cysteine
SH group can form stabilizing disulfide bonds.
amino acids are ____ linked by ____ bonds
covalently; peptide
structure dictates __
function
primary structure of protein
amino acid chain: covalent bonds
secondary structure of amino acids
alpha helices and beta sheets: hydrogen bonds (noncovalent)
tertiary protein structure
3D shape of one amino acid chain: non covalent bonds
quaternary structure of protein
multiple polypeptide subunits noncovalent bonds, disulfide bonds secreted
aggregators
can cause a cell to die
misfolded proteins
prions
chaperone therapy
refold misfolded proteins
what determines ALL levels of protein folding?
primary structure
codon
set of three nucleotides
point mutation
nucleotide is mutated in one section of dna sequence
silent mutation
does not change amino acid
missense mutation
changes amino acid by nucleotide substitution
nonsense mutation
creates a stop codon
deletion mutation
deleting 3 nucleotides resulting in deletion of proteins
frameshift mutation
insertion or deletion of multiples not of 3 that change the reading of the frame of translation
cytogenetics
study of the function of chromosomes
transposition
gene jumps from one gene and reinserts itself somewhere else in the genome
duplication
part of chromosome is duplicated and results in deletion of gene in homologous chromosomes
amylase
breaks down starch
translocation
chromosomes Exhange pieces of themselves
repair after replication
correcting polymerase mistakes
proofreading
mismatch repair
cuts backbone on either side of mutation, fills in gap, ligase seals
base excision repair
converts cytosine to uracil and signals dna repair proteins (deamnation)
nucleotide excision repair
fixes thymine dimers and other types of damage (ex xeroderma pigmentosum)
polymorphism
genetic difference
dogma of dna replication
hydrogen bonds broken by helicase, templates are copied and adjacent nucleotides are added; semiconservative
conservative theory
one old one new
dispersive theory
mix, homologous
semi conservative
unzip, corresponding bases
meselsohn and stahl
found that dna was semi conservative using ecoli
dna polymerase works
5’-3’
dna sythesis occurs at
origin of replication
lagging strand
3’-5’
leading strand
5’-3’
okazaki fragments
broken fragments on the lagging strand while bubble is opening; sealed with ligase
topoisomerase
relieves stress of unwinding
SSB proteins
bind to single strands and keep them apart
telomerase role in replication
adds nucleotides to the dna overhang
sliding clamp
keeps polymerase from flying off of dna during replication