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Adam Smith
a Scottish social philosopher and political economist known for his influential work, The Wealth of Nations, which laid the foundations for classical economics.
American Revolution
an insurrection from 1775 to 1783 in which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won independence, forming the United States of America.
Ancien Régime
the political and social system in France before the French Revolution, characterized by a monarchy and a society divided into three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners.
Anti-Semitism
hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious or racial group, a term coined in the 19th century to describe such prejudices.
Baron de Montesquieu
a French political philosopher whose work, The Spirit of the Laws, advocated for the separation of powers in government, influencing modern democratic systems.
Camillo de Cavour
a Piedmontese statesman whose diplomatic and political efforts were crucial in the unification of Italy under the House of Savoy.
Caudillos
Latin American military dictators who emerged in the 19th century, often maintaining power through charisma, patronage, and control over armed followers.
Civil Code
often associated with the Napoleonic Code, is a comprehensive set of laws concerning private rights and civil matters, established in France in 1804.
Congress of Vienna
a diplomatic assembly held from 1814 to 1815 that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, establishing a balance of power that maintained peace for decades.
Conservatism
a political philosophy that emphasizes the value of traditional institutions and practices, skepticism of rapid change, and the belief in the necessity of social order and hierarchy.
Continental Congress
the assembly of delegates from the American colonies that coordinated their resistance to British rule and ultimately declared independence.
Criollos
people of Spanish descent born in the Americas, often holding significant social and economic power in colonial Latin America.
Declaration of Independence
the document adopted on July 4, 1776, by which the American colonies declared their independence from Great Britain, outlining their grievances and principles of self-governance.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Adopted in 1789 by France's National Assembly, this document is a fundamental charter of human liberties, asserting that all men are born free and equal in rights, and it inspired the principles of the French Revolution.
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen
Written by Olympe de Gouges in 1791, this document argued for women's equality with men in society and their entitlement to the same citizenship rights.
Deists
individuals who believe in a rational, natural religion based on the existence of a supreme being and the rejection of organized religious doctrines, emphasizing reason and observation of the natural world.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
An American leader in the women's rights movement, Stanton was instrumental in organizing the first women's rights convention in 1848 and advocating for women's suffrage in the United States.
Enlightenment
European intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individualism over tradition and religious authority.
Estates-General
a representative assembly in pre-revolutionary France, comprising the clergy, nobility, and commoners, which was convened to address financial and political issues.
French Revolution
a period of radical social and political change in France from 1787 to 1799, which led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise of modern democratic ideals.
Gens de couleur
free people of mixed African and European descent in French colonial societies, particularly in the Caribbean, who often faced social and legal discrimination.
George Washington
the commander in chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution and the first president of the United States.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
an Italian patriot and soldier, Garibaldi played a key role in the unification of Italy through his military campaigns in Sicily and Naples.
Giuseppe Mazzini
an Italian nationalist and revolutionary who founded the secret society Young Italy and was a key figure in the movement for Italian unification known as the Risorgimento.
Gran Colombia
a short-lived republic from 1819 to 1830, encompassing modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, and Ecuador, established during the independence movement from Spain led by Simón Bolívar.
Haitian Revolution
a series of conflicts from 1791 to 1804 that led to the overthrow of French colonial rule in Haiti and the establishment of the first independent nation founded by former slaves.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
a Swiss-born philosopher whose works on political theory and education influenced the French Revolution and the Romantic movement.
Johann Gottfried von Herder
a German philosopher and critic who was a leading figure in the Sturm und Drang movement and an innovator in the philosophy of history and culture.
John Locke
an English philosopher whose ideas on empiricism and political liberalism laid the groundwork for modern democratic thought and influenced the Enlightenment and the U.S. Constitution.
Der Judenstaat
a pamphlet written by Theodor Herzl in 1896 advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state as a solution to anti-Semitism.
Klemens von Metternich
an Austrian statesman and diplomat who played a key role in European politics during the early 19th century, notably at the Congress of Vienna, and was a proponent of conservatism.
Levée en masse
a policy of mass conscription adopted during the French Revolution, mobilizing the entire population for military service.
Liberalism
a political doctrine emphasizing individual freedoms, equality of opportunity, and the protection of individual rights, often advocating for limited government intervention.
Calicoes
cotton fabrics printed with bright patterns, originally imported from India to Europe, which became popular in the 17th and 18th centuries (not found in search results).
Cartels
associations of independent businesses or organizations formed to control production, pricing, and marketing of goods by limiting competition.
Child labor
the employment of children below a legally specified age, often in exploitative conditions, which became a significant issue during the Industrial Revolution.
Communist Manifesto
a political pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848, outlining the principles of communism and advocating for the overthrow of capitalist societies.
Corporations
legal entities that are separate from their owners, allowing them to own assets, incur liabilities, and sell shares to raise capital.
Crystal Palace
a large glass-and-iron exhibition hall in London, built to house the Great Exhibition of 1851, showcasing industrial advancements and international exhibits.
Demographic Transition
a theory describing the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.
Eli Whitney
an American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin and promoting the use of interchangeable parts in manufacturing.
Factory System
a method of manufacturing using machinery and division of labor, which became widespread during the Industrial Revolution.
Flying Shuttle
invented by John Kay in 1733, was a key development in weaving that allowed a single weaver to weave much wider fabrics more quickly.
Friedrich Engels
a German socialist philosopher who collaborated with Karl Marx in developing the theory of communism and co-authored The Communist Manifesto.
George Stephenson
an English engineer known as the "Father of Railways" for his pioneering work on the development of the first successful steam locomotive.
Henry Ford
an American industrialist who revolutionized factory production with his assembly-line methods, significantly impacting the automotive industry.
James Watt
a Scottish inventor whose improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to the advancements of the Industrial Revolution.
Karl Marx
a German philosopher and economist who co-authored The Communist Manifesto and wrote Das Kapital, laying the foundation for Marxism.
Luddites
19th-century English workers who destroyed machinery, especially in the textile industry, as a protest against industrialization that threatened their jobs.
Middle Class
a social group between the upper and working classes, including professionals, managers, and small business owners, characterized by moderate income and education levels.
Mule
In the context of the Industrial Revolution, it refers to the spinning mule, a machine that combined features of the spinning jenny and the water frame to produce fine, strong yarn
Power Loom
a mechanized loom powered by a line shaft, and it was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the Industrial Revolution.
Second Industrial Revolution
occurring in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was characterized by rapid industrialization, technological advancements, and the expansion of industries such as steel, electricity, and chemicals.
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