theories

barthes → semiotics

• there are denotations and connotations of media

• media produces multiple connotive effects

• enigma, action, semantic, cultural & symbolic codes

• media naturalises ideology

• media reinforces the worldview of those with power

todorov → narratology

• meaning is created through narrative

• equilibrium, disequilibrium, new equilibrium

• narratives construct ideals through equilibrium

• disequilibrium represents problematic ideas

neale → genre theory

• products are defined by how they conform and subvert genres

• audiences like genres because it allows them to make informed decisions about what to consume

• producers like genres because it gives them framework and guarantees some degree of success

lévi-strauss → structuralism

• media uses binary oppositions to create preferred and oppositional meanings

baudrillard → postmodernism

• we live in a postmodern age which is defined by media saturation

• media hybridises and replicates

• media blending has resulted in fictionalised reality

hall → representation

• media produces an edited version of real life

• media shapes our view of the world

• media uses stereotypes and therefore creates inequalities

gauntlett → identity

• contemporary media has brought audiences a wide variety of representations

• audiences can consciously shape their own identity

• audiences continually revise their identities

• audiences control the media

van zoonen → feminist theory

• western culture dominantly positions women as erotic spectacles

• masculine depictions are not subject to the same objectification as woman

• male social dominance is reinforced with active representations of masculinity

hooks → feminist theory

• female ethnic minorities are at the bottom of the hierarchy

• lack of black female power results in absent representations

• intersectional media foregrounds the interconnected nature of inequality

butler → gender performativity

• gender is constructed through continuous repetition of micro-rituals

• heteronormativity is entrenched within society

• performance of gender trouble is a difficult process given heteronormativity

• media assists in marginalising subversive identities

gilroy → ethnicity & postcolonial

• black communities are constructed as an ‘other’ to white culture

• media reflects civilisationist attitudes through simplistic reportage and demonising ethnic minorities e.g., muslims

• a deep-seated postcolonial melancholia infects media as a result of the british empire

• postcolonial melancholia produces a sense of uncertainty around british identity

curran & seaton → power and media industries

• media is controlled by a small amount of companies

• media is produced to make profit

• advertising urges producers to appeal to the masses

• the business function of media takes precedence over the creative capacities

• minority content is pushed to the margins

• free market ideologies have damaged the media landscape

livingstone & lunt → regulation

• citizen-based regulation promotes media that holds powerful groups accountable and aims to improve the lives of citizens

• consumer-based regulation ensures that the media landscape contains a variety of producers so consumers have a lot of choice

• a consumer-orientated approach dominates media due to the communications act 2003 & ofcom

• globalisation reduced the power of governments in media

hesmondhalgh → cultural industries

• minimise risk through overproduction

• media conglomerates expand to cope with overproduction

• the internet is dominated by very few powerful companies

• the commercialisation of the web has reduced its democratising capacity

• maximise profit

bandura → media effects

• humans learn behaviour through social interaction through both first-hand experience and watching others

• representation modelling can influence the behaviour of audiences

• violence is an endemic feature of media content

gerbner → cultivation

• media shapes attitudes and perceptions of the world

• media with violent content creates fear - mean world syndrome

• mass media products over-exaggerate the power of authorities

• media products marginalise alternative viewpoints

hall → reception

• media encoding is affected by institutional context, production processes and genre-driven routines

• audiences do not always decode the meanings in a straightforward way

• media can be misread if they are too complex or untranslatable

• media reinforces dominant ideologies and cultural hegemonies

• preferred, negotiated and oppositional readings

jenkins → fandom

• audiences can use professional texts as creative scaffolding for their own readings

• textual poaching can be used by marginalised fans to explore alternative readings to mainstream culture e.g., fanfiction, fan art, parodies

• digital tech has brought audiences and producers together

• participatory culture can create social change

shirky → end of audience

• digital technology sped up media production processes

• consumption patterns have changed to a many-to-many model

• traditional media used a ‘filter-then-publish’ model

• internet has created a ‘publish-now, filter-later’ model to lower costs

• audiences shape their own rules of engagement

• digital tech resulted in an explosion of ‘communities practice’

mulvey → male gaze

• women are objectified by the camera lens in hollywood because men are in charge of production

• men make decisions that appeal to their own values ad interests

• the audience is positioned to accept narrow representation

• women are portrayed as passive while men are active protagonists

blumer & katz → uses and gratifications

• a media text appeals to its audience using P.I.E.S

• personal relationship - hating or loving the character

• identity - picking and choosing parts of the character to incorporate into their own personality

• escapism - allowing them to escape reality

• surveillance - teaching them something