Beliefs in society

What is the substantive definition of religion

Focuses on the content of religious belief such as God or the supernatural + exclusive

What is the functional definition or religion

Define religion through social or physiological functions + inclusive

What is the social constructionist defentition of religion

Focuses on how individuals define religion and religious beliefs

How does Durkheim link the idea of ‘the scared and the profane’ to religion

Sacred things evoke powerful feelings because they represent great power, this means that when people worship scared symbols they are worshipping society itself

What is Totemism

Members of a tribe worshipped totems which represented the tribes origins and identity which therefore means they were worshipping society

What is Malinowski’s perspective on religion

He saw religion as crucial to helping people deal with stressful situations which threaten social solidarity including :

1. Life crises - religious ritual eg : death and funerals

2. Unpredictable events - eg : on the trobiand island rituals were performed before fishing in dangerous waters

What is Parsons perspective on religion

religious beliefs provide guidelines for human action eg : formal laws have their origin in the 10 commandments

What is a civil religion

A belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself eg the American way of life

What is a counter argument for the functionalist perspective on religion

ignores religion as a source of division or conflict and neglects negative aspects such as the oppression of women

How do Marxists define religion

Religion maintains capitalism by promoting ruling class ideology and encouraging false class consciousness

How did Marx say religion justifies capitalism

acts as the ‘opium of the masses’ by distorting reality and helping followers deal with pain - essentially legitimises suffering and exploitation

How did Marx say religion causes alienation

In the act of giving up control over to God individuals give up their true humanity by denying themselves the right to make their own decisions

What is an example which supports the marxist perspective on religion

The new Christian Right justifies free market capitalism which supports the interests of the bourgeoise

What is a counter argument to the marxist view on religion

secularisation suggests that religion is no longer the oppressive force it once was

What did Otto Maduro say about religion

Argues religion has relative autonomy from ruling class control and is not always a conservative force and it can sometimes become revolutionary

What example did Otto maduro use to demonstrate his point

Liberation theology

The idea that Christianity is on the side of oppressed groups, arguing wealth should be redistributed from the rich to the poor

What is an example of religion being used to enact social change linking to communism

In Poland 1990 the communist party was opposed by the Roman Catholic Church

What does Karen Armstrong say about religion

Religion has not always been patriarchal. In early history women were considered central to spirituality

What does Jean Holm say about religion

In the public sphere men almost always dominate however in the private sphere (eg: socialisation of children into a religion) women are dominant

What does Simone de Beauvoir say about religion

some religions portray women as closer to God but only if they are passive and obedient

What does the hidden face of eve say about religion

Practices such as female circumcision are not result of Islam itself but male misinterpretations of the Qur’an

What is a counter argument against the feminist perspective of religion

Some religions are reforming and becoming less patriarchal eg : CoE allows women to become bishops

How is religion a conservative force

Maintains the status quo and is traditional

How do functionalists think religion is a conservative force

Maintains social stability and prevents society from disintegrating

How do Marxists think religion is a conservative force

Uses ideology that prevents social change through promoting false class consciousness

How do feminists think religion is a conservative force

Acts as an ideology that legitimises patriarchal power and maintains women’s subordination

How does the Weberian perspective differ from others

Combined social action with social structure and materialism with idealism - flexible and dogmatic

What does Weber say about religion and social change

The economic base shapes religion but religion can also cause economic change

(The book ‘the spirit of capitalism’)

How does Weber believe religion caused social change

Calvinism encouraged reinvestment rather than spending which reflects the needs of capitalism

What is a counter argument for Webber’s argument

Kautsky argues capitalism predated and therefore caused Protestantism

What is an example of religion causing social change in the US

MLK and the southern Christian leadership council supported the civil rights movement

Do Marxists always think religion is a conservative ideology

No

Religion can have a dual character and can sometimes be a force for change, even Marx described religion as ‘the heart of a heartless world’

What does Wilson say about secularisation

Western societies have been undergoing a long term process of secularisation

What is a statistic which supports secularisation

In the mid 19th century 40% people attended church compared to only 6.3% in 2005

How has the influence of religious institutions declined

The state took over many areas previously run by the church eg education

What does Bruce say about secularisation

‘a steady and unremitting decline’ - if current trends continue the Methodist church will fold by 2030

How does Bruce explain secularisation

The growth of technological worldview leaves very little room for religious explanations

eg : if a plane crashes we look for scientific explanations

How does Parsons explain secularisation

Structural differentiation

Specialised institutions now carry out functions that were previously performed by the church causing religion to become disconnected from wider society

How does Berger explain secularisation

Religious diversity

After the Protestant reformation in the 16th century people no longer lived under a single ‘sacred canopy’ of beliefs which caused religion to loose plausibility

How can secularisation be explained by a spiritual revolution

Traditional Christianity is replaced by new age movements which are adapted to suit our needs and the times we live in

What are criticisms of secularisation

Eurocentric (not universal), not declining just changing form

What is a criticism of religious diversity being used to explain secularisation

Doesn’t cause decline, just gives members of society more choice

What are the three main alternatives to secularisation

Theories of late modernity and postmodernity, religious market theory, existential security theory

How do theories of late modernity and postmodernity reject secularisation

They say it’s not declining but just changing as society develops (eg greater individualism and consumerism)

How does Davie support modernity/postmodernity views on secularisation

Religion is just taking a more privatised form. Individuals feel as though they don’t need to attend church anymore leading to believing without belonging

What is evidence to support Davie’s ‘believing without belonging’

Whilst only 25% attended church regularly, 80% identified themself as religious

What is Davie’s theory of vicarious religion

Small number of professional clergy practice religion on a much larger amount of people

How does Hervieu-Leger explain the decline in institutional religion

Due to cultural amnesia - parents now let their chrildren decide for themselves what to believe

What does Hervieu-Leger argue collective tradition has been replaced with

Individual consumerism

People have become ‘spiritual shoppers’ picking elements of religion that suit them best

How does Lyon explain how religion has become deinstitutionalised

Globalisation has lead to an increase in the movement of beliefs and ideas causing these ideas to become disemmeded out of their original context

What are Stark and Bainbridge’s assumptions of the religious market theory

People are naturally religious and it’s human nature to seek reward and avoid costs

What is the religious market theory

Churches operate like companies selling goods in a market. Competition between religions leads to improvements of the religious goods on offer

What is Norris and Ingleharts existential security theory

Rejection of religious market theory - only applies to America

Differences in religiosity all come down to different degrees of existential security

What is fundamentalism

These religions believe their beliefs are under threat, they wish to return to the literal ideas of their religion

What does Bruce say a function of religion in today’s world is

Cultural defence

When a religion serves to unite a community against an external threat

What is an example of cultural defence using religion

Poland used Catholicism to unite themself against communist rule

What does Huntingdon describe as the clash of civilisations

Religion causing conflict globally eg : 9/11 Islamic attacks

What is a criticism of Huntington’s clash of civilisations theory

Some may say his work is an example of orientalism (a western ideology that stereotypes earstern nations as untrustworthy)

What does Troeltsch define a church as

Larger universalistic organisations, attract MC and place few demands on members

What is an example of a church which does not conform to the said definition

Most churches don’t hold a monopoly over the truth and not all are connected to the state eg : liberation theology

How does Troeltsch define a sect

Small and exclusive, hostile to wider society, high commitment, draw in the vulnerable and have charismatic leaders

How does Niebuhr define denominations

Accept societies views but are not linked to the state + don’t appeal to the whole of society

How are cults defined

No sharply defined belief system, word affirming, tolerant of other organisations, no strong commitment

What 3 categories does Wallais use to classify new religious movements

World rejecting, world accommodating and world affirming

What are world rejecting NRM

Highly critical of outside world, members must break away from their original life, communal living

What are world accommodating NRM

breakaways from existing churches or denominations, don’t except reject the world

What are world affirming NRM

Lack conventional features of religion, considered cults, accept the world, non exclusive

How do Stark and Bainbridge subdivide cults

Audience cults - no formal membership or interaction between members

Client cults - services to members

Cultic movements - high level of commitment

What are the main explanations for the growth of NRM

marginality, relative deprivation and social change

What does the term new age refer to

New range of beliefs and activities since 1980s eg aliens and UFOs or crystals

What does Heelas say 2 common themes that characterise the new age are

Self self spirituality and detraditionalisation

How does postmodernity explain the appeal of new age movements

Post modernity has let to a loss of faith in claims to have the truth leading to individuals turning to themselves

How do sociologists argue modernity has led to new age beliefs

Individuals fragmented identity leads them to look for a source of authentic identity in new age beliefs

How does religiosity differ in gender (stat)

In 2005 1.8M women went to church compared to only 1.36M men

How do Miller and Hoffman explain the differences in religiosity in gender

Women are socialised into being passive and obedient which are qualities valued by churches

What explains the ethnic differences in religiosity

Ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries, cultural defence and cultural transition

What is cultural transition

Religion can ease the transition into a new culture by providing a sense of community and support

What are the reasons behind age differences in religiosity

The ageing affect (getting close to death), the generational effect (secularisation)

What can science deliver in today’s society that religion can’t

It enables us to explain, predict and control the world

What is science governed by according to Popper

The principle of falsificationism

Scientists always set out to try and falsify existing theories, scientific knowledge is not the absolute truth

What 4 norms do scientists need to follow according to Merton

The CUDOS norms

C - communism

U - universalistic standards

D - disinterestedness (discovering knowledge for scientific purposes)

O - organised scepticism

How does Kuhn argue science is a closed belief system

Science is based on a shared set of assumptions known as a paradigm, if a scientist goes against this they will be shunned from the community

What is Gramsci’s idea about hegemony

This is the ruling class’ ideological domination of society. The WC dual consciousness which means they can use their exploitation to create individualistic ideas and revolt

What is Karl Mannheim’s idea about ideology and utopia

There is 2 types of belief systems

1. Ideological thought - reflects position of privileged groups

2. Utopian thought 1M- underprivileged who in-vision a society organised differently

What is Karl Mannheims solution to ideology and utopia

Detach intellectuals from the social groups they represent and create free flowing intelligentsia to arrive at the total worldview