apGov 2

House of Representatives

Larger chamber (435 members), short 2-year terms, more rules, more formal debate; specializes in revenue bills and closer representation of people.

Senate

Smaller chamber (100 members), longer 6-year terms, less formal debate, unique powers like confirming appointments, ratifying treaties, and impeachment trials.

Cloture Rule

Senate procedure to end a filibuster (needs 60 votes).

Filibuster

Extended Senate debate tactic used to block a vote.

Hold

When a senator prevents a bill/nomination from quickly reaching the floor.

Unanimous Consent

Senate procedure allowing quick action if no one objects.

Conference Committee

Temporary committee that reconciles House and Senate versions of a bill.

Joint Committees

Members from both chambers; usually fact-finding or oversight.

Standing Committees

Permanent committees (e.g., Appropriations, Ways and Means).

Committee of the Whole

House procedure allowing faster debate with fewer rules.

Rules Committee

House 'traffic cop' that decides how and when bills get debated.

Ways and Means Committee

House committee in charge of taxes and revenue.

Appropriations Committee

Controls spending of money authorized by Congress.

Whip

Party leaders who track votes and enforce party discipline.

President Pro Tempore

Symbolic Senate officer (majority party, senior member).

Logrolling

'You vote for my bill, I'll vote for yours.'

Omnibus Bill

A huge bill that combines many issues (often with riders).

Rider

An unrelated provision added to a bill (common in the Senate).

Germane

House rule requiring amendments to be directly related to the bill.

Discharge Petition

House tool to force a bill out of committee and onto the floor.

Commander in Chief

President leads the military.

Executive Agreement

International agreement made without Senate approval (less formal than a treaty).

Executive Order

Rule issued by the president with force of law.

Executive Privilege

President's right to keep certain communications private.

Line-Item Veto

President tries to veto part of a bill (unconstitutional at federal level).

Pocket Veto

If president ignores a bill and Congress adjourns, the bill dies.

Signing Statements

President's written interpretation of a law when signing it.

War Powers Act

Limits president's ability to use military without Congress.

Bully Pulpit

President using visibility/influence to sway public opinion.

Imperial Presidency

Criticism that the president has grown too powerful.

State of the Union Address

Annual speech to Congress outlining priorities.

Chief of Staff

Manages president's schedule and staff.

Cabinet

Heads of executive departments who advise the president.

Joint Chiefs of Staff

Top military advisors.

Ambassador

Official representing the U.S. abroad.

Original Jurisdiction

Court hears a case first (e.g., trials in District Courts).

Appellate Jurisdiction

Court reviews lower court decisions (e.g., Appeals Courts).

Judicial Review

Power of courts to strike down unconstitutional laws (est. Marbury v. Madison).

Certiorari / Petition of Certiorari

Request to Supreme Court to hear a case.

Rule of Four

Four justices must agree to hear a case.

Stare Decisis

'Let the decision stand,' courts follow precedent.

Binding Precedent

Lower courts must follow higher courts' rulings.

Persuasive Precedent

Courts consider, but aren't bound by, other rulings.

Majority Opinion

Official court ruling with reasoning.

Concurring Opinion

Justice agrees with result but for different reasoning.

Dissenting Opinion

Justice disagrees with majority.

Judicial Activism

Judges interpret the Constitution broadly, making bold policy changes.

Judicial Restraint

Judges defer to elected branches, interpret narrowly.

US District Courts

Trial courts with original jurisdiction.

US Circuit Courts of Appeals

Hear appeals from district courts.

US Supreme Court

Highest court, final say.

Baker v. Carr

Established 'one person, one vote,' allowing courts to intervene in redistricting.

Shaw v. Reno

Race cannot be the primary factor in gerrymandering.

Bureaucracy

Government agencies that implement policy.

Compliance Monitoring

Agencies ensure businesses/gov follow rules.

Iron Triangles

Relationship between Congress, bureaucracy, and interest groups.

Issue Networks

Looser coalitions that influence policy (scholars, media, activists).

Delegated Discretionary Authority

Congress gives agencies power to interpret/implement laws.

Administrative Procedures Act

Requires transparency in agency rulemaking.

Notice and Comment Opportunity

Public can give feedback on proposed rules.

Code of Federal Regulations

Official published rules of agencies.

Civil Service Commission

Old system for merit-based hiring.

Pendleton Civil Service Act

Ended spoils system, established merit system.

Merit System

Hiring based on qualifications, not connections.

Patronage

Giving jobs for political loyalty.

Spoils System

Early system of giving jobs to party supporters.

Civil Service Reform Act

Modernized federal hiring and protections.

Office of Personnel Management (OPM)

Manages federal hiring process.

Whistleblower Protection Act

Protects employees who report wrongdoing.

Independent Regulatory Agencies

Regulate specific industries (e.g., SEC, EPA).

National Performance Review

1990s reform effort to streamline bureaucracy.

Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA)

Reviews regulations before release.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Regulates financial markets.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Enforces environmental laws.

Department of Education / Transportation / Homeland Security / Veteran Affairs

Major cabinet departments handling specific policy areas.

Formal Powers / Enumerated Powers

Powers written in the Constitution.

Implied Powers

Powers not written but inferred (via Necessary & Proper Clause).

Inherent Powers

Powers naturally belonging to government (e.g., foreign affairs).

Informal Powers

Powers not explicitly in the Constitution (e.g., executive agreements).

Necessary and Proper Clause

Expands Congress's power to pass laws to carry out duties.

Power of the Purse

Congress controls taxation/spending.

Legislative Veto

Congress nullifies executive action (now unconstitutional).

Authorization of Spending

Congress gives agencies permission to spend money.

Discretionary Spending

Budget items Congress negotiates yearly.

Mandatory Spending

Required spending (e.g., Social Security).

Deficit

When spending exceeds revenue.

Appropriations

Bills that provide money for government programs.

17th Amendment

Direct election of senators.

Caucuses

Groups of legislators with common interests.

Coalitions

Alliances among legislators to achieve goals.

Delegate Model

Rep votes how constituents want.

Trustee Model

Rep votes using their own judgment.

Politico Model

Mix of delegate and trustee.

Swing District

Competitive district, not safe for one party.

Gerrymandering

Drawing districts for political advantage.

Racial Gerrymandering

Districts drawn primarily based on race (unconstitutional).

One Person, One Vote Principle

Districts must be roughly equal in population.

Gridlock

Inaction due to partisan conflict.

Lame Duck President

Outgoing president with reduced influence.