AP Psych Unit 1.1-1.5 Terms

Nature

a person's innate characteristics and behaviors, which are largely influenced by genetics and biological makeup

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Mutations

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Nurture

the term used to describe the environmental factors that impact a person's development and personality

Eugenics

the scientifically erroneous (wrong) and immoral theory of "racial improvement" and "planned breeding"

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of environment influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Reflex Arc

the pathway of neural stimulation that occurs to translate a sensation into a physical reflexive response

Depolarization

the process of a cell's membrane potential becoming less negative in relation to its outer surface

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Multiple Sclerosis

A disorder of the central nervous system marked by weakness, numbness, a loss of muscle coordination, and problems with vision, speech, and bladder control

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters that cause neurons to "fire off a message" by stimulating them to pass a message to the next cell

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter & hormone associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Resting Potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Myasthenia Gravis

autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness of voluntary muscles

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Adrenaline

A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress (fight or flight)

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding

Psychoactive Drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain (perceptions & moods)

Substance Use Disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Caffeine

a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

Methamphetamines

Highly addictive drug that stimulates CNS, reduces dopamine levels

Ecstasy

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen, produces euphoria and social intimacy

Opioids

synthetic opiates that are prescribed for pain relief

Heroin

narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Reuptake Inhibitor

substance that interferes with the transport of released neurotransmitter molecules back into the presynaptic terminal

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Alcohol

depressant, disrupts memory formation (REM), lowers inhibition, expectancy effect

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Near-Death Experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Marijuana

a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Biological Psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Levels of Analysis

the differing complementary views for analyzing any given phenomenon

Brain Plasticity (neuroplasticity)

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Lesions

tissue destruction, a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Hindbrain

An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord (medulla, pons, cerebellum)

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward.

Forbrain

Collection of upper-level brain structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system.

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split Brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Broca's Area

helps control language expression--an area of the frontal love, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Cortex Specialization

The tendency for one side or area of the brain to carry out specific brain activities. Even though both sides of the brain are almost identical, one hemisphere primarily carries out some functions over others.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

The arrangement whereby each hemisphere is mainly responsible for the information of the opposite side of the body.

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's are (impairing understanding)

Occipital Lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal Lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Parietal Lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Somatosensory Cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Frontal Lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

Prefrontal Cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal loves that controls voluntary movements

Consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive Neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Dual Processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Parallel Processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems

Sequential Processing

processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

Sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

Circadian Rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Jet Lag

a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones

EEG Patterns

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface, these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

Alpha Waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed awake state

NREM

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Hypnagogic Sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Delta Waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3

REM

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur, aka paradoxical sleep, muscles are relaxed, but other body systems are active

REM Rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm, in response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

Activation Synthesis Theory

theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story

Consolidation Theory

Circuits wired together during the waking period are consolidated, or strengthened, during sleep

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder in which the sleeper acts out his or her dreams.

Sleep Apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings